Secretomic Insight into Glucose Metabolism of Aspergillus brasiliensis in Solid-State Fermentation.

The genus Aspergillus is ubiquitous in nature and includes various species extensively exploited industrially due to their ability to produce and secrete a variety of enzymes and metabolites. Most processes are performed in submerged fermentation (SmF); however, solid-state fermentation (SSF) offers several advantages, including lower catabolite repression and substrate inhibition and higher productivity and stability of the enzymes produced. This study aimed to explain the improved metabolic behavior of A. brasiliensis ATCC9642 in SSF at high glucose concentrations through a proteomic approach. Online respirometric analysis provided reproducible samples for secretomic studies when the maximum CO2 production rate occurred, ensuring consistent physiological states. Extracellular extracts from SSF cultures were treated by SDS-PAGE, digested with trypsin, and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Of 531 sequences identified, 207 proteins were analyzed. Twenty-five were identified as the most abundant unregulated proteins; 87 were found to be up-regulated and 95 were down-regulated with increasing glucose concentration. Of the regulated proteins, 120 were enzymes, most involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates (51), amino acids (23), and nucleotides (9). This study shows the high protein secretory activity of A. brasiliensis under SSF conditions. High glucose concentration favors catabolic activities, while some stress-related proteins and those involved in proteolysis are down-regulated.

Heparin-induced leukocytosis requires 6-O-sulfation and is caused by blockade of selectin- and CXCL12 protein-mediated leukocyte trafficking in mice.

Leukocytosis refers to an increase in leukocyte count above the normal range in the blood and is a common laboratory finding in patients. In many cases, the mechanisms underlying leukocytosis are not known. In this study, we examined the effects, the structural determinants, and the underlying mechanisms of heparin-induced leukocytosis, a side effect occurring in 0.44% of patients receiving heparin. We observed that heparin induced both lymphocytosis and neutrophilia, and the effects required heparin to be 6-O-sulfated but did not require its anticoagulant activity. Cell mobilization studies revealed that the lymphocytosis was attributable to a combination of blockage of lymphocyte homing and the release of thymocytes from the thymus, whereas the neutrophilia was caused primarily by neutrophil release from the bone marrow and demargination in the vasculature. Mechanistic studies revealed that heparin inhibits L- and P-selectin, as well as the chemokine CXCL12, leading to leukocytosis. Heparin is known to require 6-O-sulfate to inhibit L- and P-selectin function, and in this study we observed that 6-O-sulfate is required for its interaction with CXCL12. We conclude that heparin-induced leukocytosis requires glucosamine 6-O-sulfation and is caused by blockade of L-selectin-, P-selectin-, and CXCL12-mediated leukocyte trafficking.

Production of a Fungal Punicalagin-Degrading Enzyme by Solid-State Fermentation: Studies of Purification and Characterization.

The present work describes the purification of an enzyme capable of degrading punicalagin. The enzyme was produced by Aspergillus niger GH1 by solid-state fermentation, and the enzyme production was induced by using ellagitannins as the sole carbon source. The purification steps included the concentration by lyophilization, desalting, anionic exchange, and gel filtration chromatography. The enzyme kinetic constants were calculated by using punicalagin, methyl gallate, and sugar beet arabinans. The molecular mass of the protein was estimated by SDS-PAGE. The identified bands were excised and digested using trypsin, and the peptides were submitted to HPLC-MS/MS analysis. The docking analysis was conducted, and a 3D model was created. The purification fold increases 75 times compared with the cell-free extract. The obtained Km values were 0.053 mM, 0.53% and 6.66 mM for punicalagin, sugar beet arabinans and methyl gallate, respectively. The optimal pH and temperature for the reaction were 5 and 40 °C, respectively. The SDS-PAGE and native PAGE analysis revealed the presence of two bands identified as α-l-arabinofuranosidase. Both enzymes were capable of degrading punicalagin and releasing ellagic acid.

Proteomic analysis of ripening tomato fruit infected by Botrytis cinerea.

Botrytis cinerea, a model necrotrophic fungal pathogen that causes gray mold as it infects different organs on more than 200 plant species, is a significant contributor to postharvest rot in fresh fruit and vegetables, including tomatoes. By describing host and pathogen proteomes simultaneously in infected tissues, the plant proteins that provide resistance and allow susceptibility and the pathogen proteins that promote colonization and facilitate quiescence can be identified. This study characterizes fruit and fungal proteins solubilized in the B. cinerea-tomato interaction using shotgun proteomics. Mature green, red ripe wild type and ripening inhibited (rin) mutant tomato fruit were infected with B. cinerea B05.10, and the fruit and fungal proteomes were identified concurrently 3 days postinfection. One hundred eighty-six tomato proteins were identified in common among red ripe and red ripe-equivalent ripening inhibited (rin) mutant tomato fruit infected by B. cinerea. However, the limited infections by B. cinerea of mature green wild type fruit resulted in 25 and 33% fewer defense-related tomato proteins than in red and rin fruit, respectively. In contrast, the ripening stage of genotype of the fruit infected did not affect the secreted proteomes of B. cinerea. The composition of the collected proteins populations and the putative functions of the identified proteins argue for their role in plant-pathogen interactions.

The C-terminal fragment of axon guidance molecule Slit3 binds heparin and neutralizes heparin's anticoagulant activity.

Slit3 is a large molecule with multiple domains and belongs to axon guidance families. To date, the biological functions of Slit3 are still largely unknown. Our recent study demonstrated that the N-terminal fragment of Slit3 is a novel angiogenic factor. In this study, we examined the biological function of the C-terminal fragment of human Slit3 (HSCF). The HSCF showed a high-affinity binding to heparin. The binding appeared to be heparin/heparan sulfate-specific and depends on the size, the degree of sulfation, the presence of N- and 6-O-sulfates and carboxyl moiety of the polysaccharide. Functional studies observed that HSCF inhibited antithrombin binding to heparin and neutralized the antifactor IIa and Xa activities of heparin and the antifactor IIa activity of low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH). Thromboelastography analysis observed that HSCF reversed heparin's anticoagulation in global plasma coagulation. Taken together, these observations demonstrate that HSCF is a novel heparin-binding protein that potently neutralizes heparin's anticoagulation activity. This study reveals a potential for HSCF to be developed as a new antidote to treat overdosing of both heparin and LMWH in clinical applications.

Site mapping and characterization of O-glycan structures on alpha-dystroglycan isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle.

The main extracellular matrix binding component of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, alpha-dystroglycan (alpha-DG), which was originally isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle, is an extensively O-glycosylated protein. Previous studies have shown alpha-DG to be modified by both O-GalNAc- and O-mannose-initiated glycan structures. O-Mannosylation, which accounts for up to 30% of the reported O-linked structures in certain tissues, has been rarely observed on mammalian proteins. Mutations in multiple genes encoding defined or putative glycosyltransferases involved in O-mannosylation are causal for various forms of congenital muscular dystrophy. Here, we explore the glycosylation of purified rabbit skeletal muscle alpha-DG in detail. Using tandem mass spectrometry approaches, we identify 4 O-mannose-initiated and 17 O-GalNAc-initiated structures on alpha-DG isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle. Additionally, we demonstrate the use of tandem mass spectrometry-based workflows to directly analyze glycopeptides generated from the purified protein. By combining glycomics and tandem mass spectrometry analysis of 91 glycopeptides from alpha-DG, we were able to assign 21 different residues as being modified by O-glycosylation with differing degrees of microheterogeneity; 9 sites of O-mannosylation and 14 sites of O-GalNAcylation were observed with only two sites definitively exhibiting occupancy by either type of glycan. The distribution of identified sites of O-mannosylation suggests a limited role for local primary sequence in dictating sites of attachment.

Serum N-Glycome Diversity in Teleost and Chondrostrean Fishes.

Recent advances in carbohydrate chemistry, chemical biology, and mass spectrometric techniques have opened the door to rapid progress in uncovering the function and diversity of glycan structures associated with human health and disease. These strategies can be equally well applied to advance non-human health care research. To date, the glycomes of only a handful of non-human, non-domesticated vertebrates have been analyzed in depth due to the logistic complications associated with obtaining or handling wild-caught or farm-raised specimens. In contrast, the last 2 decades have seen advances in proteomics, glycoproteomics, and glycomics that have significantly advanced efforts to identify human serum/plasma biomarkers for various diseases. In this study, we investigated N-glycan structural diversity in serum harvested from five cultured fish species. This biofluid is a useful starting point for glycomic analysis because it is rich in glycoproteins, can be acquired in a sustainable fashion, and its contents reflect dynamic physiologic changes in the organism. Sera acquired from two chondrostrean fish species, the Atlantic sturgeon and shortnose sturgeon, and three teleost fish species, the Atlantic salmon, Arctic char, and channel catfish, were delipidated by organic extraction and the resulting protein-rich preparations sequentially treated with trypsin and PNGaseF to generate released N-glycans for structural analysis. Released N-glycans were analyzed as their native or permethylated forms by nanospray ionization mass spectrometry in negative or positive mode. While the basic biosynthetic pathway that initiates the production of glycoprotein glycan core structures is well-conserved across the teleost fish species examined in this study, species-specific structural differences were detected across the five organisms in terms of their monosaccharide composition, sialylation pattern, fucosylation, and degree of O-acetylation. Our methods and results provide new contributions to a growing library of datasets describing fish N-glycomes that can eventually establish species-normative baselines for assessing N-glycosylation dynamics associated with pathogen invasion, environmental stress, and fish immunologic responses.

Effects of chronic exposure to low levels of IR on Medaka (Oryzias latipes): a proteomic and bioinformatic approach.

PURPOSE: Chronic exposure to ionizing radiation (IR) at low doses (<100 mGy) has been insufficiently studied to understand fully the risk to health. Relatively little knowledge exists regarding how species and healthy tissues respond at the protein level to chronic exposure to low doses of IR, and mass spectrometric-based profiling of protein expression is a powerful tool for studying changes in protein abundance. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SDS gel electrophoresis, LC-MS/MS mass spectrometry-based approaches and bioinformatic data analytics were used to detect proteomic changes following chronic exposure to moderate/low doses of radiation in adults and normally developed Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). RESULTS: Significant variations in the abundance of proteins involved in thyroid hormone signaling and lipid metabolism were detected, which could be related to the gonadal regression phenotype observed after 21.04 mGy and 204.3 mGy/day exposure. The global proteomic change was towards overexpression of proteins in muscle and skin, while the opposite effect was observed in internal organs. CONCLUSION: The present study provides information on the impacts of biologically relevant low doses of IR, which will be useful in future research for the identification of potential biomarkers of IR exposure and allow for a better assessment of radiation biosafety regulations.

Chronic exposure to low doses of ionizing radiation impacts the processing of glycoprotein N-linked glycans in Medaka (Oryzias latipes).

PURPOSE: Ionizing radiation is found naturally in the environment. Low doses of IR may have beneficial applications, yet there is also potential for detrimental long-term health effects. Impacts following exposure to low levels of IR have been refractory to identification and quantification. Glycoprotein glycosylation is vital to cell-cell communication and organismal function, and sensitive to changes in an organism's macro- and cellular environment. We investigated whether accumulated low doses of IR (LoDIR) affect the N-linked glycoprotein glycans using Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). MATERIALS AND METHODS: State-of-the-art methods in radiation exposure and glycan analysis were applied to study N-glycan changes after 190 day exposure at three different rates of gamma irradiation (2.25, 21.01, and 204.3 mGy/day) in wild-type adult Medaka. Tissue N-glycans were analyzed following enzymatic release from extracted proteins. RESULTS: N-linked glycan profiles are dominated by complex type N-glycans modified with terminal sialic acid and core fucose. Fucosylation and sialylation of N-linked glycoprotein glycans are affected by LoDIR and a subset of N-glycans are involved in the organismal radio-response. CONCLUSION: This is the first indication that the glycome can be interrogated for biomarkers that report the impact of chronic exposure to environmental stressors, such as low-level IR.

A proteomic study of pectin-degrading enzymes secreted by Botrytis cinerea grown in liquid culture.

Botrytis cinerea is a pathogenic filamentous fungus, which infects more than 200 plant species. The enzymes secreted by B. cinerea play an important role in the successful colonization of a host plant. Some of the secreted enzymes are involved in the degradation of pectin, a major component of the plant cell wall. A total of 126 proteins secreted by B. cinerea were identified by growing the fungus on highly or partially esterified pectin, or on sucrose in liquid culture. Sixty-seven common proteins were identified in each of the growth conditions, of which 50 proteins exhibited a SignalP motif. Thirteen B. cinerea proteins with functions related to pectin degradation were identified in both pectin growth conditions, while only four were identified in sucrose. Our results indicate it is unlikely that the activation of B. cinerea from the dormant state to active infection is solely dependent on changes in the degree of esterification of the pectin component of the plant cell wall. Further, these results suggest that future studies of the B. cinerea secretome in infections of ripe and unripe fruits will provide important information that will describe the mechanisms that the fungus employs to access nutrients and decompose tissues.

An Effective Protocol for Proteome Analysis of Medaka (Oryzias latipes) after Acute Exposure to Ionizing Radiation.

All terrestrial organisms are subject to evolutionary pressures associated with natural sources of ionizing radiation (IR). The legacy of human-induced IR associated with energy, weapons production, medicine, and research has changed the distribution and magnitude of these evolutionary pressures. To date, no study has systematically examined the effects of environmentally relevant doses of radiation exposure across an organismal proteome. This void in knowledge has been due, in part, to technological deficiencies that have hampered quantifiable environmentally relevant IR doses and sensitive detection of proteomic responses. Here, we describe a protocol that addresses both needs, combining quantifiable IR delivery with a reliable method to yield proteomic comparisons of control and irradiated Medaka fish. Exposures were conducted at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory (SREL, in Aiken, SC), where fish were subsequently dissected into three tissue sets (carcasses, organs and intestines) and frozen until analysis. Tissue proteins were extracted, resolved by Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and each sample lane was divided into ten equal portions. Following in-gel tryptic digestion, peptides released from each gel portion were identified and quantified by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to obtain the most complete, comparative study to date of proteomic responses to environmentally relevant doses of IR. This method provides a simple approach for use in ongoing epidemiologic studies of chronic exposure to environmentally relevant levels of IR and should also serve well in physiological, developmental, and toxicological studies.

A polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein from grapevine reduces the symptoms of the endopolygalacturonase BcPG2 from Botrytis cinerea in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves without any evidence for in vitro interaction.

Six endopolygalacturonases from Botrytis cinerea (BcPG1 to BcPG6) as well as mutated forms of BcPG1 and BcPG2 were expressed transiently in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana using agroinfiltration. Expression of BcPG1, BcPG2, BcPG4, BcPG5, and mutant BcPG1-D203A caused symptoms, whereas BcPG3, BcPG6, and mutant BcPG2-D192A caused no symptoms. Expression of BcPG2 caused the most severe symptoms, including wilting and necrosis. BcPG2 previously has been shown to be essential for B. cinerea virulence. The in vivo effect of this enzyme and the inhibition by a polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) was examined by coexpressing Bcpg2 and the Vvpgipl gene from Vitis vinifera in N. benthamiana. Coinfiltration resulted in a substantial reduction of the symptoms inflicted by the activity of BcPG2 in planta, as evidenced by quantifying the variable chlorophyll fluorescence yield. In vitro, however, no interaction between pure VvPGIP1 and pure BcPG2 was detected. Specifically, VvPGIP1 neither inhibited BcPG2 activity nor altered the degradation profile of polygalacturonic acid by BcPG2. Furthermore, using surface plasmon resonance technology, no physical interaction between VvPGIP1 and BcPG2 was detected in vitro. The data suggest that the in planta environment provided a context to support the interaction between BcPG2 and VvPGIP1, leading to a reduction in symptom development, whereas neither of the in vitro assays detected any interaction between these proteins.

Glycan analysis of recombinant Aspergillus niger endo-polygalacturonase A.

The enzyme endo-polygalacturonase A, or PGA, is produced by the fungus, Aspergillus niger, and appears to play a critical role during invasion of plant cell walls. The enzyme has been homologously overexpressed in order to provide sufficient quantities of purified enzyme for structural and biological studies. We have characterized this enzyme in terms of its post-translational modifications (PTMs) and found it to be both N- and O-glycosylated. Additionally, we have characterized the glycosyl moieties using MALDI-TOF and LC-ESI mass spectrometry. The characterization of all PTMs on PGA, along with molecular modeling, allows us to reveal potential roles played by the glycans in modulating the interaction of the enzyme with other macromolecules.

Isolation of a polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) from wheat.

Evidence for the presence of a polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) from a monocotyledonous cereal is presented. A 40.3-kDa PGIP that was closely associated with the cell wall was acetone-extracted and purified from wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) leaves and stems. Wheat PGIP exhibited a highly selective inhibitory activity against endopolygalacturonase (EPG) from various fungi. Of nine EPG tested, wheat PGIP only inhibited EPG from Cochliobolus sativus, a pathogen of the tribe Poaceae. A short N-terminal amino acid sequence of wheat PGIP shows no similarity to any other characterized PGIP.

Studies on the glycosylation of wild-type and mutant forms of Aspergillus niger pectin methylesterase.

Pectin methylesterase (PME) is one of a number of enzymes released by the fungus Aspergillus niger that are involved in the degradation of specific plant cell-wall structures. PME is a glycoprotein with three potential sites for N-linked glycosylation. The glycosylation may affect the hydrolytic activity or the substrate specificity of PME. In this work, we investigate first the structures and the attachment sites of the glycans present on recombinant wild-type PME. Further, a series of PME mutants was created in which the three potential N-linked glycosylation sites were eliminated in all possible combinations. The glycosylation of the mutants and their activities were then studied. Mass spectrometric techniques tailored for carbohydrate analysis were applied to both characterize the glycan structures and to determine the specific sites of attachment. High mannose structures with variable numbers of mannose were found on the wild-type, as well as the mutant forms. Studies using the mutants suggest that glycosylation does not strongly influence the activity. Whether it may affect the substrate specify of the enzyme is unknown, and that aspect will be explored in future work.

Heparan sulfate deficiency disrupts developmental angiogenesis and causes congenital diaphragmatic hernia.

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a common birth malformation with a heterogeneous etiology. In this study, we report that ablation of the heparan sulfate biosynthetic enzyme NDST1 in murine endothelium (Ndst1ECKO mice) disrupted vascular development in the diaphragm, which led to hypoxia as well as subsequent diaphragm hypoplasia and CDH. Intriguingly, the phenotypes displayed in Ndst1ECKO mice resembled the developmental defects observed in slit homolog 3 (Slit3) knockout mice. Furthermore, introduction of a heterozygous mutation in roundabout homolog 4 (Robo4), the gene encoding the cognate receptor of SLIT3, aggravated the defect in vascular development in the diaphragm and CDH. NDST1 deficiency diminished SLIT3, but not ROBO4, binding to endothelial heparan sulfate and attenuated EC migration and in vivo neovascularization normally elicited by SLIT3-ROBO4 signaling. Together, these data suggest that heparan sulfate presentation of SLIT3 to ROBO4 facilitates initiation of this signaling cascade. Thus, our results demonstrate that loss of NDST1 causes defective diaphragm vascular development and CDH and that heparan sulfate facilitates angiogenic SLIT3-ROBO4 signaling during vascular development.

SPR and differential proteolysis/MS provide further insight into the interaction between PGIP2 and EPGs.

By using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology, the kinetics of the interaction of various fungal endopolygalacturonases (EPGs) (13 EPGs) with Phaseolus vulgaris (bean) PGIP2 was carried out to determine whether or not there is any interaction between polygalacturonases-inhibiting protein (PGIP) and EPG. The effect of polygalacturonic acid (PGA) on these interactions was also evaluated. The results show that all EPGs evaluated bind to PGIP2, except for AnPGb and the strength of the interaction depends on the EPG/PGIP2 pairing. Further, the presence of PGA has a moderate to strong effect on the EPG/PGIP2 interaction and the strength of the effect is dependent on the exact EPG/PGIP2 pairing. The differences in affinity in the absence and presence of PGA, suggest a certain level of cooperativity. These results indicate a three-component complex similar to that observed for the heparin-ATIII-thrombin, the FGF-FGFR-heparin, or the hedgehog-interference hedgehog-heparan complexes. This data points to an architecture in which the inhibitor binds at a location distant from the substrate binding site. Furthermore, we applied differential proteolysis mass spectrometry (DPMS) to study the location of the binding site between EPG and PGIP2. DPMS studies indicate that PGIP2 does not bind AnPGII, AnPGa, and AnPGc directly over the active site but instead binds on the face opposite to the active site, creating an allosteric interaction.

Mapping glycans onto specific N-linked glycosylation sites of Pyrus communis PGIP redefines the interface for EPG-PGIP interactions.

Polygalacturonase inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) are members of the leucine rich repeat family of proteins, involved in plant defense against fungal pathogens. PGIPs exhibit a remarkable degree of specificity in terms of their ability to bind and inhibit their target molecules, the endopolygalacturonases (EPGs). This specificity has been attributed for certain EPG/PGIP combinations to differences in primary sequence, but this explanation is unable to account for the full range of binding and inhibitory activities observed. In this paper, we have fully characterized the glycosylation on the PGIP derived from Pyrus communis and demonstrated, using a combination of PNGaseF and PNGaseA in (18)O-water, that the Pyrus communis PGIP utilizes all seven potential sites of N-linked glycosylation. Further, we demonstrate that certain sites appear to be modified only by glycans bearing alpha3-linked core fucosylation, while others are occupied by a mixture of fucosylated and nonfucosylated glycans. Modeling of the carbohydrates onto a homologous structure of PGIP indicates potential roles for glycosylation in mediating the interactions of PGIPs with EPGs.

A potential pitfall in 18O-based N-linked glycosylation site mapping.

A common procedure for identifying N-linked glycosylation sites involves tryptic digestion of the glycoprotein, followed by the conversion of glycosylated asparagine residues into (18)O-labeled aspartic acids by PNGase F digestion in (18)O water. The 3 Da mass tag created by this process is readily observable by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) analysis, and is often used to identify the sites of N-linked glycosylation. While using this procedure, we noticed that 60% of the asparagines identified as being glycosylated were not part of the consensus sequence required for N-linked glycosylation, and thus were not biologically possible. Investigation into the source of this unacceptably high false positive rate demonstrated that even after reversed-phase cleanup and heat denaturation, the trypsin used for proteolysis was still active and led to the incorporation of (18)O into the C-termini of the peptides during the deglycosylation step. The resulting mass shift accounted for most of the false positive sites, as the database search algorithm confused it with an (18)O-labeled Asp residue near the C-terminus of a peptide. This problem can be overcome by eliminating trypsin from the solution prior to performing the deglycosylation process, by resuspending the peptides in natural abundance water following deglycosylation, or by allowing (18)O incorporation into the C-terminus as a variable modification during the database search. These methods have been demonstrated on a model protein, and are applicable to the analyses of glycoproteins that are digested with trypsin or another serine protease prior to enzymatic release of the carbohydrate side chains. This study should alert investigators in the field to this potential and unexpected pitfall and provide strategies to overcome this phenomenon.

Comprehensive glycan analysis of recombinant Aspergillus niger endo-polygalacturonase C.

The enzyme PGC is produced by the fungus Aspergillus niger during invasion of plant cell walls. The enzyme has been homologously overexpressed to provide sufficient quantities of purified enzyme for biological studies. We have characterized this enzyme in terms of its posttranslational modifications (PTMs) and found it to be both N- and O-glycosylated. The glycosyl moieties have also been characterized. This has involved a combination of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF), liquid chromatography (LC)-ion trap, and LC-electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometries in conjunction with trypsin degradation and beta-elimination, followed by Michael addition with dithiothreitol (BEMAD). This is the first demonstration of the ability of BEMAD to map glycosylation sites other than O-GlcNAc sites. The complete characterization of all PTMs on PGC allows us to model them on the peptide backbone, revealing potential roles played by the glycans in modulating the interaction of the enzyme with other macromolecules.