Tissue plasminogen activator with prolonged dwell time effectively evacuates pleural effusions.

OBJECTIVES: Fibrinolytic therapy can be effective for management of complex pleural effusions. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA, 10 mg) and deoxyribonuclease (DNAse) every 12 h with a dwell time of one hour is a common strategy based on published data. We used a simpler protocol of tPA (4 mg) without DNAse but with a longer dwell time of 12 h, repeated daily. We reviewed our results. METHODS: Charts were reviewed and demographics, clinical data and treatment information were abstracted. Outcomes were assessed based on radiographic findings and need for surgery. RESULTS: Two hundred and fifteen effusions in 207 patients (8 bilateral) were identified. 85% were either infectious or malignant. Two hundred and forty nine chest tubes were used: 84% were 10 Fr or 12 Fr and 7% were PleurX®. Five hundred and thirty one doses of tPA were given. The median number of doses per effusion was 2 (range 1-10), and 84% of effusions were treated with three or fewer doses. There were no significant bleeding complications. Median time to chest tube removal was 6 days (range 1 to 98, IQR 4 to 10). Drainage was considered complete for 78% of effusions, while 6% required decortication. CONCLUSIONS: Low dose tPA daily with a 12 h dwell time may be as effective as the standard regimen of tPA and DNAse twice daily with one hour dwell. For most patients only three doses were required, and small pigtail catheters were sufficient. This regimen uses less medication and is logistically much easier than the current standard.

Association Between Interstitial Lung Disease and Outcomes After Lung Cancer Resection.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have noted that patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD) possess an increased incidence of lung cancer and risk of postoperative respiratory failure and death. We sought to understand the impact of ILD on national-scale outcomes of lung resection. METHODS: A retrospective cohort analysis using The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database was conducted of patients who underwent a pulmonary resection for non-small cell lung cancer between 2009 and 2019. Baseline characteristics and postoperative outcomes were compared between patients with and without ILD (defined as interstitial fibrosis based on clinical, radiographic, or pathologic evidence). Multivariable logistic regression models identified risk factors associated with postoperative mortality, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and composite morbidity and mortality. RESULTS: ILD was documented in 1.5% (1873 of 128,723) of patients who underwent a pulmonary resection for non-small cell lung cancer. Patients with ILD were more likely to smoke (90% vs 85%, P < .001), have pulmonary hypertension (6% vs 1.7%, P < .001), impaired diffusing capacity of lung for carbon monoxide (diffusing capacity of lung for carbon monoxide 40%-75%: 64% vs 51%; diffusing capacity of lung for carbon monoxide <40%: 11% vs 4%, P < .001), and undergo more sublobar resections (34% vs 23%, P < .001) compared with patients without ILD. Patients with ILD had increased postoperative mortality (5.1% vs 1.2%, P < .001), acute respiratory distress syndrome (1.9% vs 0.5%, P < .001), and composite morbidity and mortality (13.2% vs 7.4%, P < .001). ILD remained a strong predictor of mortality (odds ratio, 3.94; 95% CI, 3.09-5.01; P < .001), even when adjusted for patient comorbidities, pulmonary function, extent of resection, and center volume effects. CONCLUSIONS: ILD is a risk factor for operative mortality and morbidity after lung cancer resection, even in patients with normal pulmonary function.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database: 2022 Update on Outcomes and Research.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database (STS GTSD) remains the largest and most robust thoracic surgical database in the world. Participating sites receive risk-adjusted performance reports for benchmarking and quality improvement initiatives. The GTSD also provides several mechanisms for high-quality clinical research using data from 274 participant sites and 781,000 procedures since its inception in 2002. Participant sites are audited at random annually for completeness and accuracy. Over the last year and a half, the GTSD Task Force continued to refine the data collection process, implementing an updated data collection form in July 2021, ensuring high data fidelity while minimizing data entry burden. In addition, the STS Workforce on National Databases has supported a robust GTSD-based research program, which led to eight scholarly publications in 2021. This report provides an update on volume trends, outcomes, and database initiatives as well as a summary of research productivity resulting from the GTSD over the preceding year.

Robotic Esophagectomy Trends and Early Surgical Outcomes: The US Experience.

BACKGROUND: Recent esophagectomy trends were evaluated to describe the shift in surgical approach and outcomes using The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database. METHODS: All patients who underwent an esophagectomy with gastric conduit from 2015 to 2019 were identified and analyzed according to original intended approach. After performing volume trend analysis of patients, operative outcomes were evaluated. RESULTS: Among 10,607 patients, esophagectomy was open in 5763 (54.3%), minimally invasive (MIE) in 3524 (33.2%), and robotic (RAMIE) in 1320 (12.4%). Within 5 years, MIE and RAMIE combined rose to majority approach (open from 58% to 42% of annual volume). While MIE and RAMIE were associated with higher rates of anastomotic leak, loss of conduit, pulmonary embolus, and reoperation, R0 resection and harvested number of lymph nodes exceeded those in open approaches. Operative mortality did not differ by approach (3.21% open vs 2.72% MIE vs 2.50% RAMIE; P = .2329). On multivariable analysis, RAMIE was independently associated with higher rate of anastomotic leak compared to open (adjusted odds ratio 1.53, 95% CI 1.14-2.04), while both MIE and RAMIE had lower mean length of stay. Propensity matching of 1320 pairs found a higher risk of anastomotic leak requiring surgery for RAMIE compared with MIE (adjusted odds ratio 1.39, 95% CI 1.01-1.92). CONCLUSIONS: In less than a decade, the dominant surgical approach in The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database has become minimally invasive (RAMIE and MIE). While anastomotic leak and reoperation, more common in RAMIE, require a technical solution, these complications have not raised operative mortality. Further studies are needed to address long-term results and oncologic outcome.

Early discharge on postoperative day 1 following lobectomy for stage I non-small-cell lung cancer is safe in high-volume surgical centres: a national cancer database analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Shortening hospital length of stay after lobectomy for stage I non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains a challenge, and the literature regarding factors associated with safe early discharge is limited. We sought to evaluate the safety of postoperative day (POD) 1 discharge after lobectomy and its correlation with institutional caseload using the National Cancer Database, jointly sponsored by the American College of Surgeons and the American Cancer Society. METHODS: We identified patients with stage I NSCLC (tumour ≤4 cm, clinical N0, M0) in the National Cancer Database who underwent lobectomy from 2010 to 2015. Hospital surgical volume was assigned based on total surgical volume for lung cancer. The cohort was divided into 2 groups: POD 1 discharge [length of stay (LOS) ≤ 1] and the standard discharge (LOS > 1). Outcome variables were compared in propensity matched cohorts, and the multivariable regression model was created to assess factors associated with LOS ≤ 1 and the occurrence of adverse events (unplanned readmissions, 30- and 90-day deaths). RESULTS: A total of 52 830 patients underwent lobectomy for stage I NSCLC across 1231 treating facilities; 3879 (7.3%) patients were discharged on day 1 (LOS ≤ 1), whereas 48 951 (92.7%) were discharged after day 1 (LOS > 1). Factors associated with LOS ≤ 1 included male sex, higher socioeconomic status, right middle lobectomy, minimally invasive surgery and high-volume centres. The risk of adverse events was higher for LOS ≤ 1 in low [odds ratio (OR): 1.913, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.448-2.527; P < 0.001] and median quartiles (OR: 2.258; 95% CI 1.881-2.711; P < 0.001), but equivalent in high-volume centres (OR: 0.871, 95% CI 0.556-1.364; P = 0.54). CONCLUSIONS: The safety and efficacy of early discharge on POD 1 following lobectomy are associated with lung cancer surgical volume. Implementation of 'enhanced recovery' protocols is likely related to safe early discharges from high-volume centres.

Risk of Each of the Five Lung Lobectomies: A Society of Thoracic Surgeons Database Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The perioperative risk of pulmonary lobectomy as a solitary procedure has been extensively studied, yet the differences in outcomes between lobes, which have unique anatomy and a different amount of lung parenchyma, are entirely unknown. The purpose of this study was to define the risk of each of the 5 lobectomies. METHODS: The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Database was queried for patients undergoing lobectomy between 2008 and 2018. Patient and disease characteristics, operative variables, major morbidity, and 30-day mortality were examined. A multivariable logistic regression model (using the same variables in the current Society of Thoracic Surgeons lobectomy risk model) was developed to assess the contribution of lobectomy site to adverse outcomes. RESULTS: There were 65 006 patients analyzed. Adjusted perioperative mortality rate is lowest for right middle lobe (RML), 0.63%; intermediate for right upper lobe (RUL), left upper lobe (LUL), and left lower lobe (LLL), 1.08 to 1.24%; and highest for right lower lobe (RLL), 1.63%. The adjusted major morbidity rate is lowest for RML, 5.36%; intermediate for LLL and LUL, 7.82% to 8.33%; and highest for RUL and RLL, 8.94% to 9.32%. Adjusted intraoperative transfusion rate is lowest for RML, 1.37%; intermediate for RLL and LLL, 1.81% to 1.94%; and highest for RUL and LUL, 2.47% to 2.72%. CONCLUSIONS: There are clear differences in postoperative outcomes by lobectomy location. Mortality, major morbidity, and transfusion rate are lowest for RML but vary across other lobectomies. These differences should be appreciated in evaluating risk of operation, deciding on best therapy, counseling patients, and comparing outcomes.

Lobectomy Versus Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy in Healthy Octogenarians With Stage I Lung Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) is increasingly being offered for early stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We sought to evaluate long-term survival outcomes after lobectomy and SBRT in patients aged 80 years or more with stage I NSCLC. METHODS: The National Cancer Database was queried for patients with clinical stage IA and IB (size 40 mm or smaller) NSCLC who underwent SBRT or lobectomy. Only patients with no comorbidities were selected. Number of lymph nodes (LN) examined was used to stratify lobectomy patients into 0 LN, 1 to 6 LN, and 7 or more LN. Propensity score analysis was used to adjust treatment groups. Kaplan-Meier and multivariate Cox regression analysis were used for survival analysis. RESULTS: A total of 8964 patients with stage I NSCLC treated with lobectomy were compared with 286 patients who received SBRT. Using propensity matched pairs, lobectomy (7 LN or more) had significantly improved survival as compared with SBRT (median 74 vs 53.2 months, P < .05); however, no survival differences were observed when 0 LN were sampled (median 53.8 vs 52.3 months, P = .88). In multivariate analysis, lobectomy was associated with significantly improved survival (hazard ratio 0.726; 95% confidence interval; 0.580 to 0.910; P = .005). In addition, age, sex, high grade, and tumor size were independent predictors of survival. CONCLUSIONS: Among healthy octogenarians with clinical stage I NSCLC who are good surgical candidates, lobectomy offers better survival than SBRT. Adequate LN dissection allows true nodal staging and opportunity for adjuvant treatment when unsuspected nodal metastases are found.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database: 2021 Update on Outcomes and Research.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database (STS GTSD) remains the largest and most robust thoracic surgical database in the world. Participating sites receive risk-adjusted performance reports for benchmarking and quality improvement initiatives. The GTSD also provides several mechanisms for high-quality clinical research using data from 271 participant sites and nearly 720,000 procedures since its inception in 2002. Participant sites are audited at random annually for completeness and accuracy. During the last year and a half, the GTSD Task Force continued to refine the data collection form, ensuring high-quality data while minimizing data entry burden. In addition, the STS Workforce on National Databases has supported robust GTSD-based research program, which led to 10 scholarly publications in 2020. This report provides an update on outcomes, volume trends, and database improvements as well as a summary of research productivity resulting from the GTSD over the preceding year.

Variability in Smoking Status for Lobectomy Among Society of Thoracic Surgeons Database Participants.

BACKGROUND: Current smokers undergoing lobectomy are at greater risk of complications than are former smokers. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) composite score for rating program performance for lobectomy adjusts for smoking status, a modifiable risk factor. This study examined variability in the proportion of current smokers undergoing lobectomy among STS database participants. Additionally, the study determined whether each participant's rating changed if smoking was excluded from the risk adjustment model. METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of the STS cohort used to develop the composite score for rating program performance for lobectomy. The study summarized the variability among STS database participants for performing lobectomy on current smokers and compared star ratings developed from models with and without smoking status. RESULTS: There were 24,912 patients with smoking status data: 23% current smokers, 62% former smokers, and 15% never smokers. There was significant variability among participants in the proportion of current smokers undergoing lobectomy (3% to 48.6%; P < .001). Major morbidity or mortality (composite) was greater in current smokers (12.1%) than in former smokers (8.6%) and never smokers (4.2%) (P < .001). Using the current risk adjustment model, participant star ratings were as follows: 1 star, n = 6 (3.2%); 2 stars, n = 170 (91.4%); and 3 stars, n = 10 (5.4%). When smoking status was excluded from the model, 1 participant shifted from a 2-star to a 3-star program. CONCLUSIONS: There is substantial variability among STS database participants with regard to the proportion of current smokers undergoing lobectomy. However, exclusion of smoking status from the model did not significantly affect participant star rating.

Extended Dwell Time Improves Results of Fibrinolytic Therapy for Complex Pleural Effusions.

Introduction Published trials of intrapleural therapy for complex pleural effusions rely on fibrinolytics and deoxyribonuclease (DNase) with dwell times of less than six hours and frequent dosing. We reviewed our experience with fibrinolytics alone but with a longer dwell time (12 hours). Methods Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA, 1-6 mg per dose) was given through pigtail catheters placed using image guidance. Planned treatment was for a dwell time of 12 hours with repeat dosing daily for three days or until drainage was less than 100 cc or grossly bloody. Chest x-ray and/or computed tomography (CT) were used to determine completeness of pleural drainage. Results Forty-six patients presenting with 47 complex pleural effusions were given 131 doses of tPA. Doses of 4, 5, and 6 mg were most common (n=17, 70, and 33, respectively). Dwell time ranged from five to 14 hours with 12 hours being most common (n=115). Additional chest tubes were placed in 18 effusions. Ten effusions (21%) required decortication: seven for trapped lung and three for incomplete drainage. Drainage was considered complete in 33/40 (82.5%) effusions without trapped lung. Median chest tube duration was seven days (range three to 28 days). tPA therapy was discontinued in two patients for bleeding, but neither experienced hemodynamic instability. Conclusions tPA with a 12-hour dwell time is effective and safe for management of complex pleural effusions, although chest tube duration was prolonged. tPA alone is less expensive and easier than when combined with DNase, and this strategy warrants a prospective evaluation.

Intrapleural Fibrinolytic Therapy Improves Results With Talc Slurry Pleurodesis.

Objective Talc slurry pleurodesis (TSP) can lead to permanent small loculations. Intrapleural tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) breaks down loculations, and therefore may improve results but may also inhibit pleurodesis. tPA was given with and after talc slurry to promote more uniform talc distribution and eliminate loculations. Methods Charts were reviewed for patients treated with TSP with or without tPA. Chest x-rays after TSP were compared to chest x-rays before and graded as "worse", "same", or "better". Incidence of need for repeat TSP was recorded. Results There were 52 patients, eight with bilateral effusions, for a study cohort of 60 effusions. One-third of the effusions were malignant. No patients experienced significant bleeding. Results were better than baseline for 14 (26%) patients given tPA, but not for patients that never received tPA. The addition of tPA 4-6 mg with talc slurry resulted in no patients requiring repeat TSP. When tPA was given after talc slurry, a delay of three days was associated with the lowest incidence of repeat TSP (3/14, 21%). Conclusions There were no significant complications from tPA use to supplement TSP, and tPA may improve results without interfering with pleurodesis. A prospective trial is warranted.

Volume Pledge is Not Associated with Better Short-Term Outcomes After Lung Cancer Resection.

PURPOSE: We examined the relationship between short-term outcomes and hospitals and surgeons who met minimum volume thresholds for lung cancer resection based on definitions provided by the Volume Pledge. A secondary aim was to evaluate the volume-outcome relationship to determine alternative thresholds in the event the Volume Pledge was not associated with outcomes. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study (2015-2017) using the Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database. We used generalized estimating equations that accounted for confounding and clustering to compare outcomes across hospitals and surgeons who did and did not meet the Volume Pledge criteria: ≥ 40 patients per year for hospitals and ≥ 20 patients per year for surgeons. Our secondary aim was to model volume by using restricted cubic splines to determine the association between volume and short-term outcomes. RESULTS: Among 32,183 patients, 465 surgeons, and 209 hospitals, 16,630 patients (52%) received care from both a hospital and surgeon meeting the Volume Pledge criteria. After adjustment, there was no relationship with operative mortality, complications, major morbidity, a major morbidity-mortality composite end point, or failure to rescue. The Volume Pledge group had a 0.5 day (95% CI, 0.2 to 0.7 day) shorter length of stay. Our secondary aim revealed a nonlinear relationship between hospital volume and complications in which intermediate-volume hospitals had the highest risk of complications. Surgeon volume was associated with major morbidity, a major morbidity-mortality composite end point, and length of stay in an inverse linear fashion. Only 8% of surgeons had volumes associated with better outcomes. CONCLUSION: The Volume Pledge was not associated with better outcomes except for a marginally shorter length of stay. A re-examination of volume-outcome relationships for hospitals and surgeons yielded mixed results that did not reveal a practical alternative for volume-based quality improvement efforts.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database: 2020 Update on Outcomes and Research.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database (GTSD) remains the largest and most robust thoracic surgical database in the world. The GTSD provides participant sites with risk-adjusted performance reports for benchmarking and facilitates quality improvement initiatives. In addition the GTSD provides several mechanisms for high-quality research using data from over 283 participant sites and nearly 620,000 procedures since its inception in 2002. Participant sites are audited at random annually to ensure continued completeness and accuracy of the GTSD. In 2020 the GTSD migrated to a cloud-based interactive data platform, and the Task Force continues to refine the data collection form to decrease data entry burden while maintaining data quality, granularity, and relevance. This report provides an update on outcomes, volume trends, and database improvements as well as a summary of research productivity resulting from the GTSD over the preceding year.

Challenges in Lung Cancer Screening in Latin America.

Lung cancer is the deadliest cancer worldwide and is of particular concern for Latin America. Its rising incidence in this area of the world poses myriad challenges for the region's economies, which are already struggling with limited resources to meet the health care needs of low- and middle-income populations. In this environment, we are concerned that regional governments are relatively unaware of the pressing need to implement effective strategies for the near future. Low-dose chest computed tomography (LDCT) for screening, and routine use of minimally invasive techniques for diagnosis and staging remain uncommon. According to results of the National Lung Screening Trial, LDCT lung cancer screening provided a 20% relative reduction in mortality rates among at-risk individuals. Nevertheless, this issue is still a matter of debate, particularly in developing countries, and it is not fully embraced in developing countries. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of what the standard of care is for lung cancer computed tomography screening around the world and to aid understanding of the challenges and potential solutions that can help with the implementation of LDCT in Latin America.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database: 2017 Update on Research.

The outcomes research efforts based on The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) General Thoracic Surgery Database include two established research programs with dedicated task forces and with data analyses conducted at the STS data analytic center: (1) The STS-sponsored research by the Access and Publications program, and (2) grant and institutionally funded research by the Longitudinal Follow-Up and Linked Registries Task Force. Also, the STS recently introduced the research program enabling investigative teams to apply for access to deidentified patient-level General Thoracic Surgery Database data sets and conduct related analyses at their own institution. Last year's General Thoracic Surgery Database-based research publications and the new Participant User File research program are reviewed.

Comparison of Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery and Robotic Approaches for Clinical Stage I and Stage II Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Using The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Database.

BACKGROUND: Data from selected centers show that robotic lobectomy is safe and effective and has 30-day mortality comparable to that of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS). However, widespread adoption of robotic lobectomy is controversial. We used The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery (STS-GTS) Database to evaluate quality metrics for these 2 minimally invasive lobectomy techniques. METHODS: A database query for primary clinical stage I or stage II non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) at high-volume centers from 2009 to 2013 identified 1,220 robotic lobectomies and 12,378 VATS procedures. Quality metrics evaluated included operative morbidity, 30-day mortality, and nodal upstaging, defined as cN0 to pN1. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate nodal upstaging. RESULTS: Patients undergoing robotic lobectomy were older, less active, and less likely to be an ever smoker and had higher body mass index (BMI) (all p < 0.05). They were also more likely to have coronary heart disease or hypertension (all p < 0.001) and to have had preoperative mediastinal staging (p < 0.0001). Robotic lobectomy operative times were longer (median 186 versus 173 minutes; p < 0.001); all other operative measurements were similar. All postoperative outcomes were similar, including complications and 30-day mortality (robotic lobectomy, 0.6% versus VATS, 0.8%; p = 0.4). Median length of stay was 4 days for both, but a higher proportion of patients undergoing robotic lobectomy had hospital stays less than 4 days (48% versus 39%; p < 0.001). Nodal upstaging overall was similar (p = 0.6) but with trends favoring VATS in the cT1b group and robotic lobectomy in the cT2a group. CONCLUSIONS: Patients undergoing robotic lobectomy had more comorbidities and robotic lobectomy operative times were longer, but quality outcome measures, including complications, hospital stay, 30-day mortality, and nodal upstaging, suggest that robotic lobectomy and VATS are equivalent.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database: 2016 Update on Research.

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database has grown to more than 500,000 case records. Clinical research supported by the database is increasingly used to advance patient outcomes. This research review from the General Thoracic Surgery Database in 2014 and 2015 discusses 6 recent publications and an ongoing study on longitudinal outcomes in lung cancer surgery from The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Task Force for Linked Registries and Longitudinal Follow-up. A lack of database variables specific for certain uncommon procedures limits the ability to study these operations; inclusion of clinical descriptors for selected infrequent but clinically important thoracic disorders is suggested.

Accurate molecular detection of non-small cell lung cancer metastases in mediastinal lymph nodes sampled by endoscopic ultrasound-guided needle aspiration.

OBJECTIVES: The recurrence of disease after the complete resection of early stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) indicates that undetected metastases were present at the time of surgery. Quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a highly sensitive technique for detecting rare gene transcripts that may indicate the presence of cancer cells, and endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is a minimally invasive technique for the nonoperative sampling of mediastinal lymph nodes. The aim of this study was to determine whether these two techniques could enhance the preoperative detection of occult metastases. METHODS: Patients with NSCLC were evaluated with chest CT and positron emission tomography scans. Those patients without evidence of metastases (87 patients) underwent EUS-guided FNA. Lymph nodes from levels 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9 were sampled and evaluated by standard cytopathology and real-time RT-PCR. Normal control FNA specimens were obtained from patients without cancer who were undergoing EUS for benign disease (17 control specimens). For each sample, messenger RNA was extracted and real-time RT-PCR was used to quantitate the expression of six lung cancer-associated genes (ie, CEA, CK19, KS1/4, lunx, muc1, and PDEF) relative to the expression of an internal control gene (beta(2)-microglobulin). RESULTS: Clinical thresholds of marker positivity were set at 100% specificity, as determined by the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Of the cytology-positive lymph nodes (27 lymph nodes), the expression of the KS1/4 gene was above its respective clinical threshold in 25 of 27 samples (93%), making this the most sensitive marker for the detection of metastatic NSCLC. At least one of the six lung cancer-associated genes was overexpressed in 18 of 61 cytology-negative patients (30%), of which KS1/4 was overexpressed in 15 of 61 patients (25%). CONCLUSIONS: Based on the high accuracy of EUS-guided FNA/RT-PCR, we predict that some of the patients in the cytology-negative/marker-positive category will have high NSCLC recurrence rates. Among the genes used in our marker panel, KS1/4 appears particularly useful for the detection of overt or occult metastatic disease.