Cost-effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccination in Latin America and the Caribbean: an analysis in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Peru.

OBJECTIVE: Our study analyzes the cost-effectiveness of the COVID-19 vaccination campaigns in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Peru. METHODS: Using a previously published SVEIR model, we analyzed the impact of a vaccination campaign (2021) from a national healthcare perspective. The primary outcomes were quality adjusted life years (QALYs) lost and total costs. Other outcomes included COVID-19 cases, hospitalizations, deaths, and life years. We applied a discount rate of 3% for health outcomes. We modeled a realistic vaccination campaign in each country (the realistic country-specific campaign). Additionally, we assessed a standard campaign (similar, "typical" for all countries), and an optimized campaign (similar in all countries with higher but plausible population coverage). One-way deterministic sensitivity analyses were performed. FINDINGS: Vaccination was health improving as well as cost-saving in almost all countries and scenarios. Our analysis shows that vaccination in this group of countries prevented 573,141 deaths (508,826 standard; 685,442 optimized) and gained 5.07 million QALYs (4.53 standard; 6.03 optimized). Despite the incremental costs of vaccination campaigns, they had a total net cost saving to the health system of US$16.29 billion (US$16.47 standard; US$18.58 optimized). The realistic (base case) vaccination campaign in Chile was the only scenario, which was not cost saving, but it was still highly cost-effective with an ICER of US$22 per QALY gained. Main findings were robust in the sensitivity analyses. INTERPRETATION: The COVID-19 vaccination campaign in seven Latin American and Caribbean countries -that comprise nearly 80% of the region- was beneficial for population health and was also cost-saving or highly cost-effective.

Strategies for optimising early detection and obstetric first response management of postpartum haemorrhage at caesarean birth: a modified Delphi-based international expert consensus.

OBJECTIVE: There are no globally agreed on strategies on early detection and first response management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) during and after caesarean birth. Our study aimed to develop an international expert's consensus on evidence-based approaches for early detection and obstetric first response management of PPH intraoperatively and postoperatively in caesarean birth. DESIGN: Systematic review and three-stage modified Delphi expert consensus. SETTING: International. POPULATION: Panel of 22 global experts in PPH with diverse backgrounds, and gender, professional and geographic balance. OUTCOME MEASURES: Agreement or disagreement on strategies for early detection and first response management of PPH at caesarean birth. RESULTS: Experts agreed that the same PPH definition should apply to both vaginal and caesarean birth. For the intraoperative phase, the experts agreed that early detection should be accomplished via quantitative blood loss measurement, complemented by monitoring the woman's haemodynamic status; and that first response should be triggered once the woman loses at least 500 mL of blood with continued bleeding or when she exhibits clinical signs of haemodynamic instability, whichever occurs first. For the first response, experts agreed on immediate administration of uterotonics and tranexamic acid, examination to determine aetiology and rapid initiation of cause-specific responses. In the postoperative phase, the experts agreed that caesarean birth-related PPH should be detected primarily via frequently monitoring the woman's haemodynamic status and clinical signs and symptoms of internal bleeding, supplemented by cumulative blood loss assessment performed quantitatively or by visual estimation. Postoperative first response was determined to require an individualised approach. CONCLUSION: These agreed on proposed approaches could help improve the detection of PPH in the intraoperative and postoperative phases of caesarean birth and the first response management of intraoperative PPH. Determining how best to implement these strategies is a critical next step.

Conditional Cash Transfer to Improve TB Outcomes: Necessary but Not Sufficient Comment on "Does Direct Benefit Transfer Improve Outcomes Among People With Tuberculosis? - A Mixed-Methods Study on the Need for a Review of the Cash Transfer Policy in India".

Tuberculosis (TB) still represents a major public health problem in many regions of the world. TB control can only be achieved through a comprehensive and inclusive response which takes into account both upstream and downstream coordinated interventions related to structural determinants such as poverty, nutrition, sanitation, housing and access to healthcare as well as timely diagnosis and support throughout the course of treatment. Several social and financial support strategies have been proposed to improve TB treatment adherence, including conditional cash transfers (CCTs). In this context, demonstrating that social protection directly improves a specific health outcome using routinely collected data, incomplete registries or surveillance reports brings about many methodological challenges. We briefly discuss this paper and some limitations, describe main findings from our own research in this area and make a call to expand social protection interventions to address structural conditions of those most affected.

Prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection and incidence of tuberculin conversion among school contacts older than 5 years in the City of Buenos Aires. / Prevalencia de infección tuberculosa latente e incidencia de viraje tuberculínico en contactos escolares mayores de 5 años en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.

Introduction. Tuberculosis continues to be a common problem in settings of socioeconomic vulnerability. Our primary objective was to establish the prevalence of latent infection and tuberculin conversion among school contacts of tuberculosis cases. Population and methods. In a programmatic area in the south of the City of Buenos Aires, the prevalence of latent infection and tuberculin conversion was assessed in 691 children and adolescents using the tuberculin skin test. The association between loss to follow-up by the health care team and the demographic, school, and baseline care characteristics was studied, and the level of adherence when isoniazid chemoprophylaxis was indicated was described. Results. According to established definitions, the prevalence of latent infection was between 3.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.3-5.2) and 11.6% (95% CI: 9.3-14.4) in the 610 contacts with at least one skin test. The incidence of tuberculin conversion was between 0.3% and 6.8% in the 294 assessed participants. Age older than 18 years, a higher prevalence of unmet basic needs in the school district, attending the afternoon school shift, negative sputum smear results in the index case, and absence of baseline skin test were associated with contact lost to follow-up. Conclusions. The incidence of tuberculin conversion among school contacts was low. Adherence to isoniazid treatment remains limited. Factors associated with loss of contact tracing were identified, which may guide strategies necessary to improve this process.

Introducción. La tuberculosis continúa siendo un problema frecuente en contextos de vulnerabilidad socioeconómica. El objetivo principal fue establecer la prevalencia de infección latente y viraje tuberculínico en contactos escolares de casos de tuberculosis. Población y métodos. En un área programática del sur de la ciudad, se evaluó la prevalencia de infección y viraje tuberculínico de 691 niñas, niños y adolescentes utilizando la prueba cutánea de tuberculina. Se investigó la asociación entre pérdida de seguimiento por parte del equipo de salud y características demográficas, escolares y asistencia inicial, y se describió el grado de adherencia cuando la quimioprofilaxis con isoniacida fue indicada. Resultados. Según las definiciones consideradas, la prevalencia de infección latente fue entre el 3,4 % (IC95 %: 2,3-5,2) y el 11,6 % (IC95 %: 9,3-14,4) de los 610 contactos con al menos una prueba cutánea aplicada. La incidencia de viraje tuberculínico se encontró entre el 0,3 % y el 6,8 % de los 294 evaluados. La edad mayor de 18 años, la mayor prevalencia de necesidades básicas insatisfechas en la comuna escolar, la pertenencia al turno escolar vespertino, la negatividad en la baciloscopia del caso índice y la ausencia de aplicación de la prueba cutánea inicial se asociaron con pérdida de seguimiento del contacto. Conclusiones. La incidencia de viraje tuberculínico en contactos escolares fue baja. La adherencia a isoniacida continúa siendo limitada. Se identificaron factores asociados con la pérdida de seguimiento de contactos que podrían orientar estrategias necesarias para mejorar este proceso.

Prevalencia de infección tuberculosa latente e incidencia de viraje tuberculínico en contactos escolares mayores de 5 años en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires / Prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection and incidence of tuberculin conversion among school contacts older than 5 years in the City of Buenos Aires

Introducción. La tuberculosis continúa siendo un problema frecuente en contextos de vulnerabilidad socioeconómica. El objetivo principal fue establecer la prevalencia de infección latente y viraje tuberculínico en contactos escolares de casos de tuberculosis. Población y métodos. En un área programática del sur de la ciudad, se evaluó la prevalencia de infección y viraje tuberculínico de 691 niñas, niños y adolescentes utilizando la prueba cutánea de tuberculina. Se investigó la asociación entre pérdida de seguimiento por parte del equipo de salud y características demográficas, escolares y asistencia inicial, y se describió el grado de adherencia cuando la quimioprofilaxis con isoniacida fue indicada. Resultados. Según las definiciones consideradas, la prevalencia de infección latente fue entre el 3,4 % (IC95 %: 2,3-5,2) y el 11,6 % (IC95 %: 9,3-14,4) de los 610 contactos con al menos una prueba cutánea aplicada. La incidencia de viraje tuberculínico se encontró entre el 0,3 % y el 6,8 % de los 294 evaluados. La edad mayor de 18 años, la mayor prevalencia de necesidades básicas insatisfechas en la comuna escolar, la pertenencia al turno escolar vespertino, la negatividad en la baciloscopia del caso índice y la ausencia de aplicación de la prueba cutánea inicial se asociaron con pérdida de seguimiento del contacto. Conclusiones. La incidencia de viraje tuberculínico en contactos escolares fue baja. La adherencia a isoniacida continúa siendo limitada. Se identificaron factores asociados con la pérdida de seguimiento de contactos que podrían orientar estrategias necesarias para mejorar este proceso.

Introduction. Tuberculosis continues to be a common problem in settings of socioeconomic vulnerability. Our primary objective was to establish the prevalence of latent infection and tuberculin conversion among school contacts of tuberculosis cases. Population and methods. In a programmatic area in the south of the City of Buenos Aires, the prevalence of latent infection and tuberculin conversion was assessed in 691 children and adolescents using the tuberculin skin test. The association between loss to follow-up by the health care team and the demographic, school, and baseline care characteristics was studied, and the level of adherence when isoniazid chemoprophylaxis was indicated was described. Results. According to established definitions, the prevalence of latent infection was between 3.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.3­5.2) and 11.6% (95% CI: 9.3­14.4) in the 610 contacts with at least one skin test. The incidence of tuberculin conversion was between 0.3% and 6.8% in the 294 assessed participants. Age older than 18 years, a higher prevalence of unmet basic needs in the school district, attending the afternoon school shift, negative sputum smear results in the index case, and absence of baseline skin test were associated with contact lost to follow-up. Conclusions. The incidence of tuberculin conversion among school contacts was low. Adherence to isoniazid treatment remains limited. Factors associated with loss of contact tracing were identified, which may guide strategies necessary to improve this process.

Language development delay in 24-month-old children at a health care center of the City of Buenos Aires. / Retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje en niños de 24 meses en un centro de salud en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires.

INTRODUCTION: Language development delay is a frequent challenge for pediatricians and other health care providers. The main objective of this study was to establish its prevalence among children attending a health care center. POPULATION AND METHODS: The expressive vocabulary of 24-month-old children attending a health care center was assessed using the Spanish language MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories, short form (Argentine version). The association between language delay and demographic, socioeconomic, behavioral/emotional, and parental stress characteristics was analyzed. In children with expressive language delay, receptive vocabulary was assessed and possible underlying causes were studied (non-verbal cognitive delay, autistic spectrum disorders, middle ear pathology, and hearing impairment). RESULTS: Language development delay was observed in 16 out of 138 participants (11.6%; 95% confidence interval: 6.2-17%), significantly associated with a family history of language delay, parental stress, and problem behavior. Receptive vocabulary compromise was identified in 13 out of 16 children with language development delay, and 7 were suspected of autistic spectrum disorder, overall developmental delay, or both. A middle ear pathology was observed in 5 out of 9 studied children. The 9 participants who had an audiometry did not have pathological results based on this study's criteria. CONCLUSIONS: Language development delay is a prevalent condition in our population and has been mainly associated with behavioral problems and a family history of language delay.

Introducción. El retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje representa un desafío frecuente para pediatras y otros profesionales. El objetivo principal fue establecer su prevalencia en niñas y niños usuarios de un centro de salud. Población y métodos. Se evaluó el vocabulario expresivo de niñas y niños de 24 meses en un centro de salud utilizando el Inventario de Desarrollo de Habilidades Comunicativas MacArthur-Bates, versión breve (adaptación argentina). Se investigó la asociación entre el retraso del lenguaje y las características demográficas, socioeconómicas, conductuales/emocionales y de estrés parental. En aquellos con retraso expresivo, se evaluó el vocabulario receptivo y se investigaron posibles causas subyacentes (retraso cognitivo no verbal, trastornos del espectro autista, patología del oído medio e hipoacusia). Resultados. Se observó un retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje en 16 de 138 participantes (11,6%; intervalo de confianza ­IC­ 95%: 6,2-17%), asociado significativamente con antecedentes familiares de retraso del lenguaje, estrés parental y comportamiento problemático. El compromiso del vocabulario receptivo se identificó en 13 de 16 casos con retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje, y 7 presentaron sospecha de trastorno del espectro autista, de retraso global del desarrollo o ambas. Se observó la patología del oído medio en 5 de 9 estudiados. Los 9 participantes a los que se realizó una audiometría no presentaron resultados patológicos de acuerdo con los criterios adoptados en el presente trabajo. Conclusiones. El retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje representa un problema prevalente en nuestra población y se asoció principalmente con problemas de comportamiento y antecedentes familiares de retraso del lenguaje.

Incidencia de infección tuberculosa latente en un estudio de contactos escolares comparando dos puntos de corte de la prueba de tuberculina / Incidence of Latent Tuberculosis Infection in a Study of School Contacts Comparing Two Cut-off Points of the Tuberculin Test

Introducción: El riesgo de infección tuberculosa se asocia a contacto estrecho y prolongado. En las escuelas el contacto diario, aulas con poca ventilación o retraso diagnóstico del caso índice, podrían contribuir al contagio. Objetivo: Conocer la incidencia de infección tuberculosa latente (ITBL) en contactos escolares comparando dos puntos de corte en la prueba de tuberculina (PPD): ≥ 10 mm y ≥ 5 mm. Determinar el grado de cumplimiento en la realización de estudios de catastro y de quimioprofilaxis (QP). Materiales y métodos: Se realizó el análisis retrospectivo de contactos escolares de TB bacilífera, en adolescentes de 12 a 19 años, correspondientes al área programática del Hospital Parmenio Piñero entre febrero 2016 a diciembre 2017. La evaluación incluyó radiografía de tórax (RxT), laboratorio y PPD. Se analizaron 2 puntos de corte de PPD: ≥ 10mm y ≥ 5mm, repitiéndose a los 3 meses en aquellos con resultado negativo. Se indicó QP primaria con isoniazida a todos los contactos, y secundaria en aquellos con PPD+ basal o conversores al tercer mes. Se estimó cumplimiento de QP si tomaban > 80% de la pauta indicada. Resultados: de 373 estudiantes a evaluar, 331 (89%) realizaron los estudios, se diagnosticó TB en 4 (1.2%) a partir de RxT y fueron excluidos. En los 327 restantes, edad promedio 15 ± 1,6 años, hubo 132 (40%) hombres. La PPD basal fue ≥ 10 mm en 20 (6.1%) casos, siendo más frecuente en el grupo de 16-19 años vs 12-15 años: 10.7% vs 3.1%; p = 0,004. No hubo diferencia significativa al considerar el sexo. Realizaron 135 (45%) la segunda PPD encontrándose 3 conversiones (2.2%). Se indicó QP primaria a todos y secundaria a 23, el cumplimiento fue 57% y 26% respectivamente, sin asociación significativa con edad o sexo. Se reportaron 4 eventos adversos (1.2%): polineuritis (n = 2), alergia cutánea e intolerancia digestiva. Con PPD ≥ 5mm dieron positivo 63 (19.3%), siendo más frecuente en varones: 26.5% vs 14.4%, p = 0.006; y en 16-19 vs 12-15 años: 28.2% vs 13.2%; p < 0.001. Con la segunda PPD se observaron 3 conversiones (2,2%). Conclusión: Encontramos un 6,1% de ITBL considerando PPD+ ≥ 10 mm y 19,3% con PPD ≥ 5 mm. El cumplimiento en la realización de la segunda PPD fue bajo, como también en completar el esquema de QP secundaria.

Incidence of Latent Tuberculosis Infection in a Study of School Contacts Comparing Two Cut-off Points of the Tuberculin Test / Incidencia de infección tuberculosa latente en un estudio de contactos escolares comparando dos puntos de corte de la prueba de tuberculina

Introduction: The risk of tuberculosis infection is associated with close and prolonged contact. Daily contact, poorly ventilated classrooms or delay in diagnosing the index case in a school setting could contribute to contagion. Objective: To know the incidence of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in school contacts comparing two cut-off points of the tuberculin test (PPD, Purified Protein Derivative): ≥ 10mm and ≥ 5mm. To determine the degree of compliance with the performance of control and chemoprophylaxis (ChP) studies. Materials and Methods: We carried out a retrospective analysis of bacillary TB school contacts in teenagers between 12 and 19 years old of the Programmatic Area of the Hospital Parmenio Piñero between February 2016 and December 2017. The evaluation included chest x-ray, lab tests and PPD. We analyzed 2 cut-off points of the PPD: ≥ 10mm and ≥ 5mm, and repeated the test after 3 months in cases with negative results. Primary ChP with isoniazid was indicated for all the contacts, and secondary ChP for those with basal PPD+ or conversion at the third month. We considered ChP compliance in cases where patients followed > 80% of the indicated regime. Results: 331 (89%) of 373 students to be evaluated participated in the study. TB was diagnosed in 4 students (1.2%) through chest x-ray, and they were excluded. Within the remaining 327, the mean age was 15 ± 1.6 years, and 132 (40%) were male. The basal PPD was ≥ 10mm in 20 cases (6.1%), being more frequent in the group of 16-19 years versus the 12-15 years: 10.7% vs. 3.1%; p = 0.004. There wasn't any significant difference regarding sex. 135 contacts (45%) did the second PPD, and 3 conversions were found (2.2%). Primary ChP was indicated for everyone, and secondary ChP for 23 contacts, with 75% and 26% compliance respectively, and without any significant association with age or sex. 4 adverse events were reported (1.2%): polineuritis (n=2), skin allergy and food intolerance. 63 contacts (19.3%) were positive PPD, with PPD ≥ 5mm, being more frequent in males: 26.5% vs. 14.4%, p = 0.006; and in 16-19 vs. 12-15 years: 28.2% vs. 13.2%; p < 0.001. With the second PPD we observed 3 conversions (2.2%). Conclusion: We found 6.1% of LTBI considering a PPD+ ≥ 10mm and 19.3% with PPD ≥ 5mm. Compliance with the second PPD and the secondary ChP scheme was low.

Epidemiologia de diarrea aguda sanguinolenta en menores de 18 años en hospital publico de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires / Epidemiology of Acute Bloody Diarrhea in Children under 18 Years in a Public Hospital of Buenos Aires City

INTRODUCCIÓN: La diarrea es una de las enfermedades más frecuentes en la infancia, y la diarrea aguda sanguinolenta (DAS), uno de los eventos de notificación obligatoria individual de mayor incidencia en el Área Programática bajo estudio. OBJETIVO: describir las características de los casos de DAS en un hospital público de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo y transversal de las DAS en menores de 18 años, notificadas por el Hospital Piñero y sus centros de atención primaria durante 2017. Se utilizaron como fuentes de información el Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia de Salud y la base de datos del laboratorio del hospital, incluido el sistema Whonet. RESULTADOS: Se registraron 119 casos, y la mediana de edad fue de 3 años. Ingresaron coprocultivos de 53 pacientes (45%), de los cuales 22 resultaron positivos para enteropatógenos. El examen fresco de materia fecal con características inflamatorias no se asoció con un coprocultivo positivo (p=0,4). Los gérmenes aislados fueron Shigella flexneri (n=15), Shigella sonnei (n=3), Salmonella Typhimurium (n=1), Salmonella enterica sp. no Typhi, (n=1) y Campylobacter coli (n=2). El 40% de los gérmenes aislados fue resistente a trimetoprima-sulfametoxazol. No se observó resistencia a furazolidona ni cepas portadoras de beta-lactamasas de espectro extendido. CONCLUSIONES: El ingreso de coprocultivo fue bajo, la furazolidona podría ser una opción terapéutica en esta población, y no hubo desarrollo posterior de síndrome urémico hemolítico en ningún caso

Retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje en niños de 24 meses en un centro de salud en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires / Language development delay in 24-month-old children at a health care center of the City of Buenos Aires

Introducción. El retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje representa un desafío frecuente para pediatras y otros profesionales. El objetivo principal fue establecer su prevalencia en niñas y niños usuarios de un centro de salud. Población y métodos. Se evaluó el vocabulario expresivo de niñas y niños de 24 meses en un centro de salud utilizando el Inventario de Desarrollo de Habilidades Comunicativas MacArthur-Bates, versión breve (adaptación argentina). Se investigó la asociación entre el retraso del lenguaje y las características demográficas, socioeconómicas, conductuales/emocionales y de estrés parental. En aquellos con retraso expresivo, se evaluó el vocabulario receptivo y se investigaron posibles causas subyacentes (retraso cognitivo no verbal, trastornos del espectro autista, patología del oído medio e hipoacusia). Resultados. Se observó un retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje en 16 de 138 participantes (11,6%; intervalo de confianza -IC- 95%: 6,2-17%), asociado significativamente con antecedentes familiares de retraso del lenguaje, estrés parental y comportamiento problemático. El compromiso del vocabulario receptivo se identificó en 13 de 16 casos con retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje, y 7 presentaron sospecha de trastorno del espectro autista, de retraso global del desarrollo o ambas. Se observó la patología del oído medio en 5 de 9 estudiados. Los 9 participantes a los que se realizó una audiometría no presentaron resultados patológicos de acuerdo con los criterios adoptados en el presente trabajo. Conclusiones. El retraso del desarrollo del lenguaje representa un problema prevalente en nuestra población y se asoció principalmente con problemas de comportamiento y antecedentes familiares de retraso del lenguaje.

Introduction. Language development delay is a frequent challenge for pediatricians and other health care providers. The main objective of this study was to establish its prevalence among children attending a health care center. Population and methods. The expressive vocabulary of 24-month-old children attending a health care center was assessed using the Spanish-language MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories, short form (Argentine version). The association between language delay and demographic, socioeconomic, behavioral/emotional, and parental stress characteristics was analyzed. In children with expressive language delay, receptive vocabulary was assessed and possible underlying causes were studied (non-verbal cognitive delay, autistic spectrum disorders, middle ear pathology, and hearing impairment). Results. Language development delay was observed in 16 out of 138 participants (11.6%; 95% confidence interval: 6.2-17%), significantly associated with a family history of language delay, parental stress, and problem behavior. Receptive vocabulary compromise was identified in 13 out of 16 children with language development delay, and 7 were suspected of autistic spectrum disorder, overall developmental delay, or both. A middle ear pathology was observed in 5 out of 9 studied children. The 9 participants who had an audiometry did not have pathological results based on this study's criteria. Conclusions. Language development delay is a prevalent condition in our population and has been mainly associated with behavioral problems and a family history of language delay.