Maternal dietary methionine restriction alters hepatic expression of one-carbon metabolism and epigenetic mechanism genes in the ducklings.

BACKGROUND: Embryonic and fetal development is very susceptible to the availability of nutrients that can interfere with the setting of epigenomes, thus modifying the main metabolic pathways and impacting the health and phenotypes of the future individual. We have previously reported that a 38% reduction of the methyl donor methionine in the diet of 30 female ducks reduced the body weight of their 180 mule ducklings compared to that of 190 ducklings from 30 control females. The maternal methionine-restricted diet also altered plasmatic parameters in 30 of their ducklings when compared to that of 30 ducklings from the control group. Thus, their plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations were higher while their free fatty acid level and alanine transaminase activity were decreased. Moreover, the hepatic transcript level of 16 genes involved in pathways related to energy metabolism was significantly different between the two groups of ducklings. In the present work, we continued studying the liver of these newly hatched ducklings to explore the impact of the maternal dietary methionine restriction on the hepatic transcript level of 70 genes mostly involved in one-carbon metabolism and epigenetic mechanisms. RESULTS: Among the 12 genes (SHMT1, GART, ATIC, FTCD, MSRA, CBS, CTH, AHCYL1, HSBP1, DNMT3, HDAC9 and EZH2) identified as differentially expressed between the two maternal diet groups (p-value < 0.05), 3 of them were involved in epigenetic mechanisms. Ten other studied genes (MTR, GLRX, MTHFR, AHCY, ADK, PRDM2, EEF1A1, ESR1, PLAGL1, and WNT11) tended to be differently expressed (0.05 < p-value < 0.10). Moreover, the maternal dietary methionine restriction altered the number and nature of correlations between expression levels of differential genes for one-carbon metabolism and epigenetic mechanisms, expression levels of differential genes for energy metabolism, and phenotypic traits of ducklings. CONCLUSION: This avian model showed that the maternal dietary methionine restriction impacted both the mRNA abundance of 22 genes involved in one-carbon metabolism or epigenetic mechanisms and the mRNA abundance of 16 genes involved in energy metabolism in the liver of the newly hatched offspring, in line with the previously observed changes in their phenotypic traits.

Maternal dietary methionine restriction alters the expression of energy metabolism genes in the duckling liver.

BACKGROUND: In mammals, the nutritional status experienced during embryonic development shapes key metabolic pathways and influences the health and phenotype of the future individual, a phenomenon known as nutritional programming. In farmed birds as well, the quantity and quality of feed offered to the dam can impact the phenotype of the offspring. We have previously reported that a 38% reduction in the intake of the methyl donor methionine in the diet of 30 female ducks during the growing and laying periods - from 10 to 51 weeks of age - reduced the body weight of their 180 mule ducklings compared to that of 190 ducklings from 30 control females. The maternal dietary methionine restriction also altered the hepatic energy metabolism studied in 30 of their ducklings. Thus, their plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations were higher while their plasma free fatty acid level was lower than those measured in the plasma of 30 ducklings from the control group. The objective of this new study was to better understand how maternal dietary methionine restriction affected the livers of their newly hatched male and female ducklings by investigating the hepatic expression levels of 100 genes primarily targeting energy metabolism, amino acid transport, oxidative stress, apoptotic activity and susceptibility to liver injury. RESULTS: Sixteen of the genes studied were differentially expressed between the ducklings from the two groups. Maternal dietary methionine restriction affected the mRNA levels of genes involved in different pathways related to energy metabolism such as glycolysis, lipogenesis or electron transport. Moreover, the mRNA levels of the nuclear receptors PPARGC1B, PPARG and RXRA were also affected. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that the 38% reduction in methionine intake in the diet of female ducks during the growing and egg-laying periods impacted the liver transcriptome of their offspring, which may explain the previously observed differences in their liver energy metabolism. These changes in mRNA levels, together with the observed phenotypic data, suggest an early modulation in the establishment of metabolic pathways.

Metabolomic study of fatty livers in ducks: Identification by 1H-NMR of metabolic markers associated with technological quality.

The control of fatty liver fat loss during cooking is a major issue. Previous studies showed that fat loss was influenced by bird production factors and liver technological treatments. However, part of the variability in fat loss remained uncontrolled. To provide enhanced insights into the determinism of fatty liver quality, liver hydrophilic metabolite profiles were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance of the proton ((1)H-NMR). The study aimed at i) comparing fatty livers with extreme fat loss values and ii) at characterizing the effect of postmortem evolution of livers during chilling. A group of 240 male mule ducks (Cairina moschata × Anas platyrhynchos) was reared and overfed. Their livers were sampled at 20 min and 6 h postmortem. Of these birds, 2 groups of ducks were built with extreme values on the technological yield (TY; TY = 100 - % fat loss; the low-fat-loss group, TY = 89.9%, n = 13; and the high-fat-loss group, TY = 68.3%, n = 12, P < 0.001). The (1)H-NMR analyses showed that the high-fat-loss livers were more advanced in postmortem biochemical and structural changes than low-fat-loss livers early postmortem. The high-fat-loss livers were characterized by hydrolysis of glycogen into glucose, worse integrity of cell membrane with diminution of compounds of phospholipids, and higher catabolic processes. The accelerated postmortem processes may be the origin of the differences in fat loss during cooking. During the early postmortem period, the adenosine triphosphate amount in liver cells was strongly reduced and lipolysis of triglycerides seemed to be enhanced. The glycogen stored in liver was first converted into glucose, but contrary to what happens in postmortem muscles, glucose was not converted into lactate.

Genetic susceptibility to S. aureus mastitis in sheep: differential expression of mammary epithelial cells in response to live bacteria or supernatant.

Staphylococcus aureus is a prevalent pathogen for mastitis in dairy ruminants and is responsible for both clinical and subclinical mastitis. Mammary epithelial cells (MEC) represent not only a physical barrier against bacterial invasion but are also active players of the innate immune response permitting infection clearance. To decipher their functions in general and in animals showing different levels of genetic predisposition to Staphylococcus in particular, MEC from ewes undergoing a divergent selection on milk somatic cell count were stimulated by S. aureus. MEC response was also studied according to the stimulation condition with live bacteria or culture supernatant. The early MEC response was studied during a 5 h time course by microarray to identify differentially expressed genes with regard to the host genetic background and as a function of the conditions of stimulation. In both conditions of stimulation, metabolic processes were altered, the apoptosis-associated pathways were considerably modified, and inflammatory and immune responses were enhanced with the upregulation of il1a, il1b, and tnfa and several chemokines known to enhance neutrophil (cxcl8) or mononuclear leukocyte (ccl20) recruitment. Genes associated with oxidative stress were increased after live bacteria stimulation, whereas immune response-related genes were higher after supernatant stimulation in the early phase. Only 20 genes were differentially expressed between Staphylococcus spp-mastitis resistant and susceptible animals without any clearly defined role on the control of infection. To conclude, this suggests that MEC may not represent the cell type at the origin of the difference of mastitis susceptibility, at least as demonstrated in our genetic model. Supernatant or heat-killed S. aureus produce biological effects that are essentially different from those induced by live bacteria.

Transcriptomic analysis of milk somatic cells in mastitis resistant and susceptible sheep upon challenge with Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus.

BACKGROUND: The existence of a genetic basis for host responses to bacterial intramammary infections has been widely documented, but the underlying mechanisms and the genes are still largely unknown. Previously, two divergent lines of sheep selected for high/low milk somatic cell scores have been shown to be respectively susceptible and resistant to intramammary infections by Staphylococcus spp. Transcriptional profiling with an 15K ovine-specific microarray of the milk somatic cells of susceptible and resistant sheep infected successively by S. epidermidis and S. aureus was performed in order to enhance our understanding of the molecular and cellular events associated with mastitis resistance. RESULTS: The bacteriological titre was lower in the resistant than in the susceptible animals in the 48 hours following inoculation, although milk somatic cell concentration was similar. Gene expression was analysed in milk somatic cells, mainly represented by neutrophils, collected 12 hours post-challenge. A high number of differentially expressed genes between the two challenges indicated that more T cells are recruited upon inoculation by S. aureus than S. epidermidis. A total of 52 genes were significantly differentially expressed between the resistant and susceptible animals. Further Gene Ontology analysis indicated that differentially expressed genes were associated with immune and inflammatory responses, leukocyte adhesion, cell migration, and signal transduction. Close biological relationships could be established between most genes using gene network analysis. Furthermore, gene expression suggests that the cell turn-over, as a consequence of apoptosis/granulopoiesis, may be enhanced in the resistant line when compared to the susceptible line. CONCLUSIONS: Gene profiling in resistant and susceptible lines has provided good candidates for mapping the biological pathways and genes underlying genetically determined resistance and susceptibility towards Staphylococcus infections, and opens new fields for further investigation.

Identification of Plasmatic Biomarkers of Foie Gras Qualities in Duck by Metabolomics.

The foie gras is an emblematic product of French gastronomy composed of waterfowl fatty liver. The organoleptic qualities of this product depend on the liver characteristics such as liver weight (LW) and technological yield (TY) at cooking. One of the main issues for producers is to classify the foie gras with high or low technological quality before cooking them. Thus the study aims at identifying biomarkers of these characteristics with non-invasive biomarkers in duck. 1H-NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance of the proton) analyses were performed on plasma of male mule ducks at different time points during the overfeeding period to obtain a large range of liver characteristics so as to identify plasmatic biomarkers of foie gras. We used two methods, one based on bucket data from the 1H-NMR spectra and another one based on the fingerprints of several metabolites. PLS analyses and Linear models were performed to identify biomarkers. We identified 18 biomarkers of liver weight and 15 biomarkers of technological yield. As these two quality parameters were strongly correlated (-0.82), 13 biomarkers were common. The lactate was the most important biomarker, the other were mainly amino acids. Contrary to the amino acids, the lactate increased with the liver weight and decreased with the technological yield. We also identified 5 biomarkers specific to LW (3 carbohydrates: glucuronic acid, mannose, sorbitol and 2 amino acids: glutamic acid and methionine) that were negatively correlated to liver weight. It was of main interest to identify 2 biomarkers specific to the technological yield. Contrary to the isovaleric acid, the valine was negatively correlated to the technological yield.

Application of Metabolomics to Identify Hepatic Biomarkers of Foie Gras Qualities in Duck.

Foie gras is a traditional dish in France that contains 50 to 60% of lipids. The high-fat content of the liver improves the organoleptic qualities of foie gras and reduces its technological yield at cooking (TY). As the valorization of the liver as foie gras products is strongly influenced by the TY, classifying the foie gras in their potential technological quality before cooking them is the main challenge for producers. Therefore, the current study aimed to identify hepatic biomarkers of foie gras qualities like liver weight (LW) and TY. A group of 120 male mule ducks was reared and overfed for 6-12 days, and their livers were sampled and analyzed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR). Eighteen biomarkers of foie gras qualities were identified, nine for LW and TY, five specific to LW, and four specific to TY. All biomarkers were strongly negatively correlated to the liver weights and positively correlated to the technological yield, except for the lactate and the threonine, and also for the creatine that was negatively correlated to foie gras technological quality. As a result, in heavy livers, the liver metabolism was oriented through a reduction of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolisms, and the plasma membrane could be damaged, which may explain the low technological yield of these livers. The detected biomarkers have been strongly discussed with the metabolism of the liver in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.

Positive Impact of Thermal Manipulation During Embryogenesis on Foie Gras Production in Mule Ducks.

Animal studies have shown that very early life events may have programing effects on adult metabolism and health. In this study, we aim, for the first, time to elucidate the effects of embryonic thermal manipulation (TM) on the performance of overfed mule ducks, in particular for the production of foie gras (fatty liver). We designed three embryonic TMs with different protocols for increasing the incubation temperature during the second part of embryogenesis, to determine whether hepatic metabolism could be "programed" to improve its fattening response to overfeeding at the age of three months. Initial results confirm that an increase in the incubation temperature leads to faster development (observed for all treated groups compared to the control group), and a decrease in the body surface temperature at birth. Thereafter, in a very innovative way, we showed that the three TM conditions specifically increased liver weights, as well as liver lipid content after overfeeding compared to the non-TM control group. These results demonstrate that embryonic TM effectively "programs" the metabolic response to the challenge of force-feeding, resulting in increased hepatic steatosis. Finally, our goal of improving foie gras production has been achieved with three different embryonic thermal stimuli, demonstrating the high reproducibility of the method. However, this repeatability was also perceptible in the adverse effects observed on two groups treated with exactly the same cumulative temperature rise leading to a reduction in hatchability (75 and 76% vs. 82% in control), in addition to an increase in the melting rate after cooking. These results suggest that embryonic thermal programing could be an innovative and inexpensive technique for improving foie gras production, although the specific protocol (duration, level or period of temperature increase), remains to be elucidated in order to avoid adverse effects.

Evolution of liver fattening and foie gras technological yield during the overfeeding period in mule duck.

In foie gras production the technological yield after the cooking process is one of the main issues of processors as it is closely linked to the cooking melting rate. This rate is subjected to strict laws and regulations since it directly affects the organoleptic and technological qualities of this gourmet product. The objective of the study was to better understand the liver fattening and the technological yield decrease during the overfeeding kinetics. A flock of 210 mule ducks was reared and then overfed during 12 D with 2 overfeeding programs; in the test group the amounts of corn in the first meals were higher than in the control group (+430 g during the whole period). Ducks were slaughtered at the end of the rearing period (D0, n = 15) and every other day (D2 to D12, n = 15 by group). Duck performances, anatomical dissections and physical and biochemical liver characteristics were registered. The performances were equivalent in the groups (P > 0.1). The evolution of the liver weight was then analyzed in detail in relation with the evolution of its biochemical composition. A two-step evolution occurred in the liver metabolism, first a main glycogen storage and then a strong lipid storage. A model to predict the liver weight was established with only BWs and feed intakes (R² = 0.83). The technological yield was determined on foie gras weighing more than 300 g (D6 to D12). The melting process was high during the last 2 D. The technological yield reached 72% at D12, for 758 g foie gras, and a strong negative correlation was observed with liver weight (-0.83; P < 0.001). A model to predict the technological yield was established with the liver weight and the liver color parameters (R² = 0.71). This study highlights the compromise between foie gras weight and its quality.

Gene expression profiling of dendritic cells reveals important mechanisms associated with predisposition to Staphylococcus infections.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus is a major pathogen of humans and animals and emerging antibiotic-resistant strains have further increased the concern of this health issue. Host genetics influence susceptibility to S. aureus infections, and the genes determining the outcome of infections should be identified to find alternative therapies to treatment with antibiotics. Here, we used outbred animals from a divergent selection based on susceptibility towards Staphylococcus infection to explore host immunogenetics. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We investigated how dendritic cells respond to heat-inactivated S. aureus and whether dendritic cells from animals showing different degrees of susceptibility had distinct gene expression profiles. We measured gene expression levels of in vitro S. aureus-stimulated bone marrow-derived dendritic cells at three different time points (0, 3 and 8 hrs) by using 15 k ovine Agilent microarrays. Furthermore, differential expression of a selected number of genes was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Gene signatures of stimulated DCs were obtained and showed that genes involved in the inflammatory process and T helper cell polarization were highly up-regulated upon stimulation. Moreover, a set of 204 genes were statistically differentially expressed between susceptible and resistant animals, and grouped them according to their predisposition to staphylococcal infection. Interestingly, over-expression of the C1q and Ido1 genes was observed in the resistant line and suggested a role of classical pathway of complement and early regulation of inflammation pathways, respectively. On the contrary, over expression of genes involved in the IL1R pathway was observed in susceptible animals. Furthermore, the leucocyte extravasation pathway was also found to be dominant in the susceptible line. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: We successfully obtained Staphylococcus aureus associated gene expression of ovine BM-DC in an 8-hour kinetics experiment. The distinct transcriptional profiles of dendritic cells obtained from resistant and susceptible animals may explain susceptibility towards S. aureus infections in a broader context.