Synaptic and cellular endocannabinoid signaling mechanisms regulate stress-induced plasticity of nucleus accumbens somatostatin neurons.

Interneuron populations within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) orchestrate excitatory-inhibitory balance, undergo experience-dependent plasticity, and gate-motivated behavior, all biobehavioral processes heavily modulated by endogenous cannabinoid (eCB) signaling. While eCBs are well known to regulate synaptic plasticity onto NAc medium spiny neurons and modulate NAc function at the behavioral level, how eCBs regulate NAc interneuron function is less well understood. Here, we show that eCB signaling differentially regulates glutamatergic and feedforward GABAergic transmission onto NAc somatostatin-expressing interneurons (NAcSOM+) in an input-specific manner, while simultaneously increasing postsynaptic excitability of NAcSOM+ neurons, ultimately biasing toward vHPC (ventral hippocampal), and away from BLA (basolateral amygdalalar), activation of NAcSOM+ neurons. We further demonstrate that NAcSOM+ are activated by stress in vivo and undergo stress-dependent plasticity, evident as a global increase in intrinsic excitability and an increase in excitation-inhibition balance specifically at vHPC, but not BLA, inputs onto NAcSOM+ neurons. Importantly, both forms of stress-induced plasticity are dependent on eCB signaling at cannabinoid type 1 receptors. These findings reveal eCB-dependent mechanisms that sculpt afferent input and excitability of NAcSOM+ neurons and demonstrate a key role for eCB signaling in stress-induced plasticity of NAcSOM+-associated circuits.

Transcriptome-wide analyses of piRNA binding sites suggest distinct mechanisms regulate piRNA binding and silencing in C. elegans.

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) protect genome integrity by silencing transposon mRNAs and some endogenous mRNAs in various animals. However, C. elegans piRNAs only trigger gene silencing at select predicted targeting sites, suggesting additional cellular mechanisms regulate piRNA silencing. To gain insight into possible mechanisms, we compared the transcriptome-wide predicted piRNA targeting sites to the in vivo piRNA binding sites. Surprisingly, while sequence-based predicted piRNA targeting sites are enriched in 3' UTRs, we found that C. elegans piRNAs preferentially bind to coding regions (CDS) of target mRNAs, leading to preferential production of secondary silencing small RNAs in the CDS. However, our analyses suggest that this CDS binding preference cannot be explained by the action of antisilencing Argonaute CSR-1. Instead, our analyses imply that CSR-1 protects mRNAs from piRNA silencing through two distinct mechanisms-by inhibiting piRNA binding across the entire CSR-1 targeted transcript, and by inhibiting secondary silencing small RNA production locally at CSR-1 bound sites. Together, our work identifies the CDS as the critical region that is uniquely competent for piRNA binding in C. elegans. We speculate the CDS binding preference may have evolved to allow the piRNA pathway to maintain robust recognition of RNA targets in spite of genetic drift. Together, our analyses revealed that distinct mechanisms are responsible for restricting piRNA binding and silencing to achieve proper transcriptome surveillance.

Accurate assignment of disease liability to genetic variants using only population data.

PURPOSE: The growing size of public variant repositories prompted us to test the accuracy of pathogenicity prediction of DNA variants using population data alone. METHODS: Under the a priori assumption that the ratio of the prevalence of variants in healthy population vs that in affected populations form 2 distinct distributions (pathogenic and benign), we used a Bayesian method to assign probability to a variant belonging to either distribution. RESULTS: The approach, termed Bayesian prevalence ratio (BayPR), accurately parsed 300 of 313 expertly curated CFTR variants: 284 of 296 pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in 1 distribution and 16 of 17 benign/likely benign variants in another. BayPR produced an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.99 for 103 functionally confirmed missense CFTR variants, which is equal to or exceeds 10 commonly used algorithms (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve range = 0.54-0.99). Application of BayPR to expertly curated variants in 8 genes associated with 7 Mendelian conditions led to the assignment of a disease-causing probability of ≥80% to 1350 of 1374 (98.3%) pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants and of ≤20% to 22 of 23 (95.7%) benign/likely benign variants. CONCLUSION: Irrespective of the variant type or functional effect, the BayPR approach provides probabilities of pathogenicity for DNA variants responsible for Mendelian disorders using only the variant counts in affected and unaffected population samples.

Gut commensals, dysbiosis, and immune response imbalance in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis.

Intestinal microbiota alterations have been found to be directly related to a wide range of disease states in humans, including multiple sclerosis (MS). The etiology of MS is highly debated and subsequently, there is no cure. Research dedicated to MS and its murine model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), have found that dysbiosis of the gut microbiota may play a role in the disease state and severity. In this review, we discuss the characteristic dysbiosis in MS, the role commensal-derived ligands may have in the pathogenesis of the disease, and the possibility of targeting the microbiota as a future therapy.

Seasonality and distribution of cyanobacteria and microcystin toxin genes in an oligotrophic lake of Atlantic Canada.

Cyanotoxins are an emerging threat to freshwater resources worldwide. The most frequently reported cyanotoxins are the microcystins, which threaten the health of humans, wildlife, and ecosystems. Determining the potential for microcystin production is hindered by a lack of morphological features that correlate with microcystin production. However, amplicon-based methods permit the detection of microcystin biosynthesis genes and were employed to assess the toxin potential in Lake Utopia, NB, Canada, an oligotrophic lake that occasionally experiences cyanobacteria blooms. Samples collected at 2 week intervals from June 27th to September 27th, 2016, were screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the microcystin synthetase E gene (mcyE). The mcyE gene was present in some samples every sampling day, despite microcystin not being detected via ELISA, and was most frequently associated with the larger pore size fractions of the serially filtered samples. Further PCR surveys using primer sets to amplify genus-specific (e.g., Microcystis, Anabaena/Dolichospermum, and Planktothrix) mcyE fragments identified Microcystis as the only taxa in Lake Utopia with toxigenic potential. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA V3-V4 region revealed a community dominated by members of the order Synechococcales (from 38 to 96% relative abundance), but with significant presence of taxa from Cyanobacteriales including Microcystaceae and Nostocaceae. A persistent Microcystis population was detected in samples both testing positive and negative for the mcyE gene, highlighting the importance of identifying cyanotoxin production potential by gene presence and not species identity. To our knowledge, this study represents the first application of amplicon-based approaches to studying toxic cyanobacteria in an understudied region-Atlantic Canada.

piRTarBase: a database of piRNA targeting sites and their roles in gene regulation.

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are a class of small noncoding RNAs that guard animal genomes against mutation by silencing transposons. In addition, recent studies have reported that piRNAs silence various endogenous genes. Tens of thousands of distinct piRNAs made in animals do not pair well to transposons and currently the functions and targets of piRNAs are largely unexplored. piRTarBase provides a user-friendly interface to access both predicted and experimentally identified piRNA targeting sites in Caenorhabditis elegans. The user can input genes of interest and retrieve a list of piRNA targeting sites on the input genes. Alternatively, the user can input a piRNA and retrieve a list of its mRNA targets. Additionally, piRTarBase integrates published mRNA and small RNA sequencing data, which will help users identify biologically relevant targeting events. Importantly, our analyses suggest that the piRNA sites found by both predictive and experimental approaches are more likely to exhibit silencing effects on their targets than each method alone. Taken together, piRTarBase offers an integrative platform that will help users to identify functional piRNA target sites by evaluating various information. piRTarBase is freely available for academic use at http://cosbi6.ee.ncku.edu.tw/piRTarBase/.

pirScan: a webserver to predict piRNA targeting sites and to avoid transgene silencing in C. elegans.

pirScan is a web-based tool for identifying C. elegans piRNA-targeting sites within a given mRNA or spliced DNA sequence. The purpose of our tool is to allow C. elegans researchers to predict piRNA targeting sites and to avoid the persistent germline silencing of transgenes that has rendered many constructs unusable. pirScan fulfills this purpose by first enumerating the predicted piRNA-targeting sites present in an input sequence. This prediction can be exported in a tabular or graphical format. Subsequently, pirScan suggests silent mutations that can be introduced to the input sequence that would allow the modified transgene to avoid piRNA targeting. The user can customize the piRNA targeting stringency and the silent mutations that he/she wants to introduce into the sequence. The modified sequences can be re-submitted to be certain that any previously present piRNA-targeting sites are now absent and no new piRNA-targeting sites are accidentally generated. This revised sequence can finally be downloaded as a text file and/or visualized in a graphical format. pirScan is freely available for academic use at http://cosbi4.ee.ncku.edu.tw/pirScan/.

The impact of insurance coverage on the prenatal genetic counseling process: An exploration of genetic counselors' experiences with TRICARE.

The prenatal genetic counseling process may be influenced by the patient's insurance coverage for both prenatal testing and termination. Major commercial insurance providers have different policies. TRICARE is the United States Department of Defense health program for uniformed service members. TRICARE provides coverage to approximately 9.4 million beneficiaries, including health plans, special programs, prescriptions, and dental plans. TRICARE's covered medical expenses are outlined in their policies, including those pertaining to genetic testing and termination. This qualitative study aimed to explore the extent to which insurance coverage of prenatal genetic testing and termination of pregnancy affect the genetic counseling process by exploring genetic counselors' experience with TRICARE. The majority of counselors stated that they did not change their overall counseling process for TRICARE patients. However, several counselors expressed that they changed the way they discussed cost with TRICARE patients, specifically in regard to genetic testing. Additionally, counselors provided their perceptions of their patients' emotional experiences. With the recent consolidation of the three TRICARE regions into two TRICARE Regional Office (TRO) regions and the renewal of the Laboratory Developed Tests Demonstration Project, the findings of this study are valuable in the evaluation of TRICARE's coverage of prenatal genetic services.

Seroprevalence of economically important viral pathogens in swine populations of Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence and identify the strains of swine influenza virus (SwIV), as well as the seroprevalence of porcine parvovirus (PPV), transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2), and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) in pigs in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T). Blood samples (309) were randomly collected from pigs at farms throughout T&T. Serum samples were tested for the presence of antibodies to the aforementioned viruses using commercial ELISA kits, and the circulating strains of SwIV were identified by the hemagglutination inhibition test (HIT). Antibodies against SwIV were detected in 114 out of the 309 samples (37%). Out of a total of 26 farms, 14 tested positive for SwIV antibodies. HI testing revealed high titers against the A/sw/Minnesota/593/99 H3N2 strain and the pH1N1 2009 pandemic strain. Antibodies against PPV were detected in 87 out of the 309 samples (28%), with 11 out of 26 farms testing positive for PPV antibodies. Antibodies against PCV-2 were detected in 205 out of the 309 samples tested (66%), with 25 out of the 26 farms testing positive for PCV-2 antibodies. No antibodies were detected in any of the tested pigs to PRRSV, TGEV, PRCV, or CSFV.

US of the Peripheral Nerves of the Upper Extremity: A Landmark Approach.

Ultrasonography (US) has become a first-line modality for the evaluation of the peripheral nerves of the upper extremity. The benefits of US over magnetic resonance (MR) imaging include higher soft-tissue resolution, cost effectiveness, portability, real-time and dynamic imaging, and the ability to scan an entire extremity quickly and efficiently. US can be performed on patients who are not eligible for MR imaging. Metallic implant artifacts are usually not problematic. US has been shown to have equal specificity and greater sensitivity than MR imaging in the evaluation of peripheral nerves. Any abnormal findings can be easily compared with the contralateral side. The published literature has shown that US has demonstrated clinical utility in patients with suspected peripheral nerve disease by guiding diagnostic and therapeutic decisions as well as by confirming electrodiagnostic findings. Common indications for upper extremity peripheral nerve US are the evaluation for injury due to penetrating trauma, entrapment by scar tissue, and tumor. US of the upper extremity is most commonly performed to evaluate carpal and cubital tunnel syndrome. It is important for the radiologist or sonographer to have a detailed knowledge of anatomy and specific anatomic landmarks for each nerve to efficiently and accurately perform an examination. The goal of this article is to introduce readers to the basics of US of the peripheral nerves of the upper extremity with a focus on the median, ulnar, and radial nerves. Common sites of disease and the location of important anatomic landmarks will be reviewed.

Characterization of nitrazine yellow as a photoacoustically active pH reporter molecule.

Throughout the fields of biomedical imaging, materials analysis, and routine chemical analysis, it is desirable to have a toolkit of molecules that can allow noninvasive/remote chemical sensing with minimal sample preparation. Here, we describe the photophysical properties involved in photoacoustic (PA) measurements and present a detailed analysis of the requirements and complications involved in PA sensing. We report the use of nitrazine yellow (NY) as a well-behaved PA pH reporter molecule. Both the basic and acidic forms of NY are photoacoustically well-behaved and allow for rapid and noninvasive measurement of pH in either transparent or turbid media. We also find that the serum protein-bound form of NY is photoacoustically well-behaved and should permit applications in noninvasive 3D imaging (e.g., the lymphatic system).

Beyond Ohdo syndrome: A familial missense mutation broadens the MED12 spectrum.

Intellectual disability (ID) is estimated to affect 1-3% of the general population and is a common reason for referrals to pediatric and adult geneticists, as well as neurologists. There are many genetic and non-genetic causes of ID; X-linked forms are identifiable through their characteristic inheritance pattern. Current testing methods have been able to identify over 100 genes on the X chromosome responsible for X-linked intellectual disability (XLID) syndromes. MED12 [MIM *300188] (mediator complex subunit 12) mutations have been linked to numerous XLID syndromes, including Lujan, FG, and Ohdo, and MED12 is included in many XLID panels. MED12 is located at Xq13.1 and its product has roles in transcriptional activation and repression. We describe two affected male siblings and their unaffected mother with a novel missense mutation in MED12, c.4147G>A (p.Ala1383Thr). The siblings share some features of Ohdo syndrome, including feeding difficulties, microcephaly, and speech delay. However, additional attributes such as hypertonia, eosinophilic esophagitis, penile chordee, and particular facial dysmorphisms depart sufficiently from individuals previously described such that they appear to represent a new and expanded phenotype. This case lends credence to the evolving theory that the subtypes of Ohdo, and perhaps other MED12 disorders, reflect a spectrum of characteristics, rather than distinct syndromes. As XLID panel testing and whole exome sequencing (WES) becomes a standard of care for affected males, further MED12 mutations will broaden the phenotype of these intriguing disorders and challenge clinicians to rethink the current diagnostic boundaries.

Molecular assessment of differences in the duodenal microbiome in subjects with irritable bowel syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Breath testing and duodenal culture studies suggest that a significant proportion of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients have small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. In this study, we extended these data through 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing and quantitative PCR (qPCR) analyses of duodenal aspirates from a large cohort of IBS, non-IBS and control subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Consecutive subjects presenting for esophagogastroduodenoscopy only and healthy controls were recruited. Exclusion criteria included recent antibiotic or probiotic use. Following extensive medical work-up, patients were evaluated for symptoms of IBS. DNAs were isolated from duodenal aspirates obtained during endoscopy. Microbial populations in a subset of IBS subjects and controls were compared by 16S profiling. Duodenal microbes were then quantitated in the entire cohort by qPCR and the results compared with quantitative live culture data. RESULTS: A total of 258 subjects were recruited (21 healthy, 163 non-healthy non-IBS, and 74 IBS). 16S profiling in five IBS and five control subjects revealed significantly lower microbial diversity in the duodenum in IBS, with significant alterations in 12 genera (false discovery rate < 0.15), including overrepresentation of Escherichia/Shigella (p = 0.005) and Aeromonas (p = 0.051) and underrepresentation of Acinetobacter (p = 0.024), Citrobacter (p = 0.031) and Microvirgula (p = 0.036). qPCR in all 258 subjects confirmed greater levels of Escherichia coli in IBS and also revealed increases in Klebsiella spp, which correlated strongly with quantitative culture data. CONCLUSIONS: 16S rDNA sequencing confirms microbial overgrowth in the small bowel in IBS, with a concomitant reduction in diversity. qPCR supports alterations in specific microbial populations in IBS.

Spirituality and optimism: a holistic approach to component-based, self-management treatment for HIV.

For people living with HIV (PLWH), spirituality and optimism have a positive influence on their health, can slow HIV disease progression, and can improve quality of life. Our aim was to describe longitudinal changes in spirituality and optimism after participation in the SystemCHANGE™-HIV intervention. Upon completion of the intervention, participants experienced an 11.5 point increase in overall spiritual well-being (p = 0.036), a 6.3 point increase in religious well-being (p = 0.030), a 4.8 point increase in existential well-being (p = 0.125), and a 0.8 point increase in total optimism (p = 0.268) relative to controls. Our data suggest a group-based self-management intervention increases spiritual well-being in PLWH.

Cross-Reactivity of 24 Cannabinoids and Metabolites in blood using the immunalysis cannabinoids direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit.

With a wider availability of synthetic and semi-synthetic cannabinoids in the consumer space, there is a growing impact on public health and safety. Forensic toxicology laboratories should keep these compounds in mind as they attempt to remain effective in screening for potential sources of human performance impairment. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a commonly utilized tool in forensic toxicology, as its efficiency and sensitivity make it useful for rapid and easy screening for a large number of drugs. This screening technique has lower specificity, which allows for broad cross-reactivity among structurally-similar compounds. In this study, the Cannabinoids Direct ELISA kit from Immunalysis was utilized to assess the cross-reactivities of 24 cannabinoids and metabolites in whole blood. The assay was calibrated with 5 ng/mL of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the analytes of interest were evaluated at concentrations ranging from 5 to 500 ng/mL. Most parent compounds demonstrated cross-reactivity ≥ 20 ng/mL, with increasing alkyl side chain length relative to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol resulting in decreased cross-reactivity. Of the 24 analytes, only the carboxylic acid metabolites, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9(R)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol, and 11-nor-9(S)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol, were cross-reactive at levels ≤ 10 ng/mL. Interestingly, 11-nor-9(R)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol demonstrated cross-reactivity at 5 ng/mL, where its stereoisomer 11-nor-9(S)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol, did not. As more information emerges about the prevalence of these analytes in blood specimens, it is important to understand and characterize their impact on current testing paradigms.

Screening and confirmation of psilocin, mitragynine, phencyclidine, ketamine and ketamine metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

A safe and productive workplace requires a sober workforce, free from substances that impair judgment and concentration. Although drug monitoring programs already exist, the scope and loopholes of standard workplace testing panels are well known, allowing other substances to remain a source of risk. Therefore, a high-throughput urine screening method for psilocin, mitragynine, phencyclidine, ketamine, norketamine and dehydronorketamine was developed and validated in conjunction with a urine and blood confirmation method. There are analytical challenges to overcome with psilocin and mitragynine, particularly when it comes to drug stability and unambiguous identification in authentic specimens. Screening and confirmation methods were validated according to the American National Standards Institute/Academy Standards Board (ANSI/ASB) Standard 036, Standard Practices for Method Validation in Forensic Toxicology. An automated liquid handling system equipped with dispersive pipette extraction tips was utilized for preparing screening samples, whereas an offline solid-phase extraction method was used for confirmation sample preparation. Both methods utilized liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to achieve limits of detection between 1-5 ng/mL for the screening method and 1 ng/mL for the confirmation method. Automation allows for faster throughput and enhanced quality assurance, which improves turnaround time. Compared to previous in-house methods, specimen volumes were substantially decreased for both blood and urine, which is an advantage when volume is limited. This screening technique is well suited for evaluating large numbers of specimens from those employed in safety-sensitive workforce positions. This method can be utilized by workplace drug testing, human performance and postmortem laboratories seeking robust qualitative screening and confirmation methods for analytes that have traditionally been challenging to routinely analyze.

Complete genome sequence of a novel papillomavirus in Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) from Trinidad and Tobago.

Here, we announce the complete genome of a previously undescribed papillomavirus from a betta fish, Betta splendens. The genome is 5,671 bp with a GC content of 38.2%. Variants were detected in public databases. This genome is most similar to papillomaviruses that infect sea bass (52.9 % nucleotide identity).

Completing the Puzzle: A Cluster of Hunting Dogs with Tick-Borne Illness from a Fishing Community in Tobago, West Indies.

Eight hunting dogs were visited by a state veterinarian on the island of Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, as owners reported anorexia and paralysis in five of their dogs. The veterinarian observed a combination of clinical signs consistent with tick-borne illness, including fever, anorexia, anaemia, lethargy and paralysis. Blood and ticks were collected from each dog and submitted to a diagnostic laboratory for analysis. Microscopic analysis revealed a mixed infection of intracytoplasmic organisms consistent with Babesia spp. (erythrocyte) and Ehrlichia spp. (monocyte), respectively, from one dog, while a complete blood count indicated a regenerative anaemia (n = 1; 12.5%), non-regenerative anaemia (n = 4; 50%), neutrophilia (n = 3; 37.5%), lymphocytosis (n = 2; 25%), thrombocytopaenia (n = 3; 37.5%) and pancytopaenia (n = 1; 12.5%). DNA isolated from the eight blood samples and 20 ticks (16 Rhipicephalus sanguineus and 4 Amblyomma ovale) were subjected to conventional PCR and next-generation sequencing of the 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA gene for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and Babesia/Theileria/Hepatozoon, respectively. The DNA of Ehrlichia spp., closely related to Ehrlichia canis, was detected in the blood of three dogs (37.5%), Anaplasma spp., closely related to Anaplasma marginale, in two (25%), Babesia vogeli in one dog (12.5%) and seven ticks (35%) and Hepatozoon canis and Anaplasma spp., in one tick (5%), respectively. These findings highlight the need to test both the vector and host for the presence of tick-borne pathogens when undertaking diagnostic investigations. Further studies are also warranted to elucidate the susceptibility of canids to Anaplasma marginale.