Biosecurity Dogs Detect Live Insects after Training with Odor-Proxy Training Aids: Scent Extract and Dead Specimens.

Detector dogs could be trained to find invasive insect pests at borders before they establish in new areas. However, without access to the live insects themselves, odor training aids are needed to condition dogs to their scent. This proof-of-concept study assessed 2 potential training aids for insect detection: a scent extract and dead specimens of the target species. Using Musgraveia sulciventris (Hemiptera: Tessaratomidae) as an experimental model, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were carried out to compare the chemical headspaces that make up the odors of live specimens and these 2 training aids. This was then followed by canine scent-detection testing to investigate biosecurity detector dogs' (n = 4) responses to training in an ecologically valid context. Both the scent extract and the dead specimens shared the majority of their volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with live insects. Of the dogs trained with scent extract (n = 2), both were able to detect the live insects accurately, and of those trained with dead specimens (n = 2), one detected the live insects accurately. These findings lend support for these training aids as odor-proxies for live insects-particularly scent extract, which is a relatively novel product with the potential for broad application to facilitate and improve insect-detection training.

An in situ and ultrasound study of Yonaguni ponies revealed the rare finding of the nuchal ligament lamellae from C2-C7.

The Yonaguni pony is a rare breed of pony that has remained isolated on the westernmost island of Japan and may well retain normal morphological traits currently lost in most domestic horses (Equus caballus), such as the attachment of the nuchal ligament lamellae (NLL) from C2-C7. Recent research has found that NLL attachments are no longer present at C6 and C7 in most modern domesticated horses. This study investigated the attachments of the NLL in three Yonaguni ponies; 2 were examined in situ(deceased), and 1 was examined in vivo via ultrasound. The aim was to verify the attachments and compare the morphology to that in equids from previous studies. The in situ (2/2) and in vivo (1/1) findings revealed that the NLL was attached from C2-C7 in the Yonaguni ponies.

Defining the Characteristics of Successful Biosecurity Scent Detection Dogs.

To perform their role effectively, scent detection dogs require certain characteristics. Identifying these characteristics will inform the selection of prospective dogs and preferred approaches to their training. The current study drew upon the perspectives of industry stakeholders to identify the behavioural traits considered relevant for detection dogs in biosecurity screening roles. Dog handlers, trainers, and supervisors (n = 25) in Australian biosecurity operations participated in focus group interviews to determine the perceived characteristics that, in their experience, influence detection performance. Their descriptions were used to create a questionnaire which was then administered to handlers to assess the working behaviours of current biosecurity dogs. Responses were collected for 88% of the operational dogs (n = 36). An exploratory factor analysis revealed seven tentative dimensions: search motivation, emotional stability, search arousal, food motivation, play motivation, search independence, and search focus. Search motivation and search arousal were both positively associated with handler ratings of detection performance (p ≤ 0.006). In general, biosecurity dogs were scored consistently high in ratings of search motivation, emotional stability, and food motivation. Our approach has advanced our understanding of the working behaviours and characteristic profile of biosecurity detector dogs and will be used to inform candidate selection processes.

Perinatal Stress in Immature Foals May Lead to Subclinical Adrenocortical Dysregulation in Adult Horses: Pilot Study.

The persistent endocrinological effects of perinatal stress due to gestational immaturity in horses are unknown, although effects have been reported in other livestock species. This pilot study tested the hypothesis that persistent adrenocortical dysregulation is present in horses that were gestationally immature at birth by assessing the salivary cortisol response to exogenous ACTH. Case horses (n = 10) were recruited with histories of gestation length < 315 d or dysmaturity observable through neonatal signs. Positive controls (n = 7) and negative controls (n = 5) were recruited where possible from related horses at the same locations. Cases and positive controls received an intramuscular, low-dose (0.1 ug/kg) of synthetic ACTH (Tetracosactrin 250 mg/mL, Synacthen); negative controls received no ACTH. Saliva samples were collected from all horses at baseline T = 0 and at 30 min intervals post injection from T = 30 to T = 150. These were assayed for salivary cortisol concentration (SCC) using a commercially available ELISA kit (Salimetrics). All baseline values (T = 0) were within normal published ranges. Peak and AUC values (corrected for baseline) for case horses were significantly different (ANOVA P < .001) to positive controls, with either higher (H-cases) or lower (L-cases) SCC values, outside the 95% Confidence Interval of the reference population. There was no significant effect of breed, age, sex, test month, or location on results. The results suggest that gestational immaturity may lead to subclinical adrenocortical dysregulation, with affected horses presenting an elevated or blunted response to a low-dose ACTH stimulation, despite normal basal levels.

Use of a habituation-dishabituation test to determine canine olfactory sensitivity.

The habituation-dishabituation (H-D) paradigm is an established measure of sensory perception in animals. However, it has rarely been applied to canine olfaction. It proposes that animals will lose interest in, or habituate to, a stimulus after successive exposures but will regain interest in, or dishabituate to, a novel stimulus if they can perceive it. This study assessed an H-D test's practicability to determine dogs' olfactory detection thresholds (ODTs) for a neutral odorant. A random selection of mixed-breed pet dogs (n = 26) participated in two H-D tests in a repeated-measures crossover design. They were first habituated to a carrier odor and then presented with either ascending concentrations of n-amyl acetate in the known ODT range (experimental condition) or repeated carrier odor presentations (control condition). No single odor concentration elicited dishabituation in the majority of the dogs. However, individual dogs dishabituated at differing experimental concentrations significantly more often than in the control condition (p = .012). These findings provide some tentative support for using this method in studying canine olfaction. However, further assessment and refinement are needed before it can be a viable alternative to traditional ODT measurement.

Causal Loop Analysis Can Identify Solutions to Complex Dog Management Problems in Remote Australian Aboriginal Communities.

Companion animal management in Australian remote Aboriginal communities (rAcs) is a complex problem with multiple stakeholders involved, with differing needs, knowledge, power and resources. The Comm4Unity (Cycle of Multiple Methods for Unity-For Community) approach was designed to address such problems. This study represents the second step of the Comm4Unity framework, where a causal loop analysis (CLA) was adapted and tested as a tool to address the issue of dog overpopulation in Wurrumiyanga, and in particular the systemic causes of the problem and necessary transformational management solutions. Ten focus group discussions (FGDs) were held amongst three of the four stakeholder groups identified during the first step in the analysis. The CLA identified 13 positive feedback loops, which drive vicious cycles and perpetuate the dog overpopulation issue. All three groups agreed and developed 22 solutions to address the causes of dog overpopulation. Despite the differences in the framings of the three groups, "training" and "education" were both the top priority solutions for all three groups. The majority of the solutions discussed by the groups were not only transformational but also social, requiring collaboration. This study was successful in so far as transformational actions were co-developed by all FGDs, which may have also built capacity and agency amongst the local community to implement them as a cohesive group.

Frame Analysis: An Inclusive Stakeholder Analysis Tool for Companion Animal Management in Remote Aboriginal Communities.

Companion animal management in Australian remote Aboriginal communities (rAcs) is a complex problem, with multiple stakeholders involved with differing needs, knowledge, power and resources. We present our CoMM4Unity approach, a participatory systemic action research process designed to address such problems. In the first step, frame analysis is used to analyse stakeholders' perspectives, knowledge types and power dynamics to determine their relative roles in animal management. Twenty individuals were interviewed from stakeholder groups involved in animal management in the remote, island rAc of Wurrumiyanga, Tiwi Islands. Frame analysis indicated that stakeholders aligned into four groups with distinct identity frames, knowledge types and power frames: Indigenous Locals, Indigenous Rangers, Non-Indigenous Locals and Animal Managers. All four groups shared overlapping perceptions about companion animals in Wurrumiyanga, and agreed that dog overpopulation was the primary issue. However, the groups differed in their strength of opinions about how dogs should be managed. Therefore, the situation is not one of diametrically opposing frames but more a misalignment of goals and values. Our application showed that frame analysis can reveal subtle variations in stakeholder groups' identities, goals and values, and hence how they prioritise management measures.

Evaluating Ultrasound as a Noninvasive Technique for Investigating Anatomical Variations of the Equine Nuchal Ligament Lamellae.

Ultrasound is a well-established modality in equine investigative and diagnostic procedures. Although to date, it has not been utilized in examining the attachments of the equine nuchal ligament lamellae (NLL) onto the cervical vertebrae, for which a noninvasive technique is currently lacking. This study presents a standardized methodology for investigating the equine NLL using ultrasonography, and further evaluates the ultrasound images against postmortem dissection in two nonrelated horses. The ultrasound images in both horses clearly presented the attachment points of the NLL to the dorsal spines of the cervical vertebrae from C2 to C5, whereas no attachment points could be seen from C6 to C7. The ultrasound images were confirmed through close, comparative inspection of the NLL postmortem. Therefore, ultrasound provides a noninvasive alternative to gross anatomic dissections for investigating the NLL attachments in members of the family Equidae. Importantly, this provides an opportunity to examine endangered breeds or isolated populations without the detrimental loss to the gene pool of rare anatomic and or primitive traits.

Prematurity and Dysmaturity Are Associated With Reduced Height and Shorter Distal Limb Length in Horses.

The long-term effects of gestational immaturity in the premature (defined as < 320 days gestation) and dysmature (normal term but showing some signs of prematurity) foal have not been thoroughly investigated. Studies have reported that a high percentage of gestationally immature foals with related orthopedic issues such as incomplete ossification may fail to fulfill their intended athletic purpose, particularly in Thoroughbred racing. In humans, premature birth is associated with shorter stature at maturity and variations in anatomical ratios, linked to alterations in metabolism and timing of physeal closure in the long bones. We hypothesized that gestational immaturity in horses might similarly be associated with reduced height and different anatomical ratios at maturity. In this preliminary study, the skeletal ratios of horses with a history of gestational immaturity, identified through veterinary and breeder records, were compared with those of unaffected, closely related horses (i.e., sire, dam, sibling). External measurements were taken from conformation photographs of cases (n = 19) and related horses (n = 28), and these were then combined into indices to evaluate and compare metric properties of conformation. A principal component analysis showed that the first two principal components account for 43.8% of the total conformational variation of the horses' external features, separating horses with a rectangular conformation (body length > height at the withers), from those that are more square (body length = height at the withers). Varimax rotation of PC1 and analysis of different gestational groups showed a significant effect of gestational immaturity (P = .001), with the premature group being more affected than the dysmature group (P = .009, P = .012). Mean values for the four dominant indices showed that these groups have significantly lower distal limb to body length relationships than controls. The observed differences suggest that gestational immaturity may affect anatomical ratios at maturity, which, in combination with orthopedic issues arising from incomplete ossification, may have a further impact on long-term athletic potential.

Global Strategies for Population Management of Domestic Cats (Felis catus): A Systematic Review to Inform Best Practice Management for Remote Indigenous Communities in Australia.

Pet domestic cat (Felis catus) populations are increasing all around the world, resulting in an increase in contact with humans and wildlife, potentially spreading zoonotic diseases and predating on wildlife. With the recently identified rise in cat populations in remote Indigenous communities in Australia, culturally appropriate cat population management strategies are required. A systematic review process was conducted to review the current global cat population management practices that are suitable for owned, free-roaming cat populations in these communities. Eight articles on in-situ field cat populations and five studies simulating computer modelled cat populations reported results of 66 population management interventions. Surgical Sterilisation (SS) was used in all socialised owned cat articles. The trap-neuter-release (TNR) method was used most frequently on unsocialised cats and gained the best results when the trap-remove (TR) method was used concurrently to adopt out unwanted social cats and euthanise ill or injured cats. The results of this review suggest that long-term TNR/SS programs supplemented with TR provide the current most ethically sound best practice, humane method of managing cat populations in remote Australian Indigenous communities. It is also recognised that no one plan will fit all, and that further research on the micro-level techniques used to deploy both TNR and TR needs to occur, and that culturally appropriate community consultation during all processes is vital in achieving a sustainable management program.

A Radiographic Technique for Assessment of Morphologic Variations of the Equine Caudal Cervical Spine.

Equine Caudal Cervical Morphologic Variation (ECCMV) is a congenital malformation of the caudal cervical spine distinct from the more commonly recognized Cervical Vertebral Stenotic Myelopathy (CVSM). The most common presentation of ECCMV is recognized on the sixth cervical vertebra (C6). In "normal" presentations, the transverse processes on the left and right sides have a caudal lamina projecting ventrally below the caudal vertebral body in a heel shape. With ECCMV, variations occur to the structure of the caudal ventral lamina on one or both sides of C6 and may include the seventh cervical (C7) and first thoracic (T1) vertebrae and ribs, in varying configurations. Whereas the prevalence of ECCMV is not known, it has been recognized for many years and has been reported to occur with relatively high frequency within multiple populations of domesticated horses. To date, there is no documented link between the occurrence of ECCMV and clinical signs. However, based on retrospective studies, multiple authors have recognized the potential impact on performance that this condition may have. Establishing a reliable radiographic protocol for the consistent diagnosis of ECCMV would allow quantitative, scientific evaluation of the problem and support clinicians working in this field. We present a radiographic technique, which has been illustrated by diagnosis of ECCMV in three horses and confirmation of the diagnoses in two cases via postmortem examination.

Alpaca Field Behaviour When Cohabitating with Lambing Ewes.

A common strategy to reduce predator attack on livestock is the deployment of guardian alpacas. However, little research has been conducted on the behaviour of this species while housed with other livestock. This study monitored two male alpacas cohabitating with 180 lambing ewes in order to quantify field behaviour in two phases. Phase one assessed diurnal patterns of alpacas and lambing ewes using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) collars recording data over 41 days, in combination with observational recordings. Phase two developed an alpaca behavioural ethogram through continuous observations from 05:30 to 19:30 h over a 3-day period. The two alpacas shared similar behaviours with commonality of distance travelled, and both species exhibited an increase in activity level based on speed between the times of 05:00 and 17:00 h. The GNSS data indicated that the alpacas flocked with the ewes at night sharing the same resting location, however, would spend time during the day on the outskirts of the paddock. Alpacas were observed to spend the majority of the observation period in two behavioural states: grazing (57%) and resting (27%). As a result of this study we were able to catalogue a range and frequency of field behaviours which alpacas exhibit while cohabitating with lambing ewes. However, further research is needed to determine in more detail how these behaviours correspond with the effectiveness of this species as a livestock guardian.

An experimental meat-free diet maintained haematological characteristics in sprint-racing sled dogs.

A dog's nutrient requirements can theoretically be met from a properly balanced meat-free diet; however, proof for this is lacking. Exercise places additional demands on the body, and dogs fed a meat-free diet may be at increased risk of developing sports anaemia. We hypothesised that exercising dogs would remain in good health and not develop anaemia when fed a nutritionally balanced meat-free diet. To this end, twelve sprint-racing Siberian huskies were fed either a commercial diet recommended for active dogs (n 6), or a meat-free diet formulated to the same nutrient specifications (n 6). The commercial diet contained 43 % poultry meal, whereas soyabean meal and maize gluten made up 43 % of the meat-free diet, as the main protein ingredients. Dogs were fed these diets as their sole nutrient intake for 16 weeks, including 10 weeks of competitive racing. Blood samples were collected at weeks 0, 3, 8 and 16, and veterinary health checks were conducted at weeks 0, 8 and 16. Haematology results for all dogs, irrespective of diet, were within normal range throughout the study and the consulting veterinarian assessed all dogs to be in excellent physical condition. No dogs in the present study developed anaemia. On the contrary, erythrocyte counts and Hb values increased significantly over time (P < 0.01) in both groups of dogs. The present study is the first to demonstrate that a carefully balanced meat-free diet can maintain normal haematological values in exercising dogs.

Olfactory Generalization in Detector Dogs.

Generalizing to target odor variations while retaining specificity against non-targets is crucial to the success of detector dogs under working conditions. As such, the importance of generalization should be considered in the formulation of effective training strategies. Research investigating olfactory generalization from pure singular compounds to more complex odor mixtures helps to elucidate animals' olfactory generalization tendencies and inform ways to alter the generalization gradient by broadening or narrowing the range of stimuli to which dogs will respond. Olfactory generalization depends upon both intrinsic factors of the odors, such as concentration, as well as behavioral and cognitive factors related to training and previous experience. Based on the current research, some training factors may influence generalization. For example, using multiple target exemplars appears to be the most effective way to promote elemental processing and broaden the generalization gradient, whereas increasing the number of training instances with fewer exemplars can narrow the gradient, thereby increasing discrimination. Overall, this research area requires further attention and study to increase our understanding of olfactory generalization in dogs, particularly detector dogs, to improve training and detection outcomes.

A Primitive Trait in Two Breeds of Equus Caballus Revealed by Comparative Anatomy of the Distal Limb.

The 55-million-year history of equine phylogeny has been well-documented from the skeletal record; however, this is less true for the soft tissue structures that are now vestigial in modern horse. A recent study reported that two ligamentous structures resembling functional interosseous muscle II and IV were evident in Dutch Konik horses. The current study investigates this finding and compares it to members of the genus Equus to identify either a breed anomaly or functional primitive trait. Distal limbs (n = 574) were dissected from four species of Equus; E. caballus, E. asinus, E. przewalskii and E. quagga boehmi. E. caballus is represented by 18 breeds of horse, including the primitive Dutch Konik'. The interosseous muscle II and IV were evident in all four species, but only two breeds of E. caballus expressed this trait-the Dutch Konik and Bosnian Mountain Horse. These two breeds were the only close descendants of the extinct Equus ferus ferus (Tarpan) represented in this study. In conclusion, the interosseous muscle II and IV originated from the distal nodule of metacarpal II and IV, respectively, and inserted into the corresponding branches of interosseous muscle III proximal to the sesamoids. This suggests a functional role in medial and lateral joint stability and a primitive trait in modern equids.

Using Movement Sensors to Assess Lying Time in Horses With and Without Angular Limb Deformities.

Chronic musculoskeletal pathologies are common in horses, however, identifying related effects can be challenging. This study tested the hypothesis that movement sensors and analgesics could be used in combination to confirm the presence of restrictive pathologies by assessing lying time. Four horses presenting a range of angular limb deformities (ALDs) and four nonaffected controls were used. The study comprised two trials at separate paddock locations. Trial A consisted of a 3-day baseline phase and 2 × 3-day treatment phases, during which two analgesics were administered to two ALD horses and two controls in a standard crossover design. Trial B replicated trial A, except that as no difference between analgesics had been evident in trial A, only one analgesic was tested. Movement sensors were used to measure the horses' lying time and lying bouts. In trial A, ALD horses' basal mean lying time was significantly less than controls (means ± SD for ALD horses 213 ± 1.4 minutes and for controls 408 ± 46.7 minutes, P = .007); with analgesic administration, the difference became nonsignificant. In trial B, ALD horses' basal mean lying time was also significantly less than controls (ALD horses 179 ± 110.3 minutes; controls 422.5 ± 40.3 minutes, P < .001), again becoming nonsignificant with analgesic administration. Given the increases in ALD horses' lying time with analgesic administration, it is possible that their shorter basal lying time is associated with musculoskeletal discomfort. Despite the small sample size, movement sensors effectively measured this behavior change, indicating that they could be a useful tool to indirectly assess the impact of chronic musculoskeletal pathologies in horses.

Anthropogenic Food Subsidy to a Commensal Carnivore: The Value and Supply of Human Faeces in the Diet of Free-Ranging Dogs.

As the global population of free-ranging domestic dogs grows, there is increasing concern about impacts on human health and wildlife conservation. Effective management of dog populations requires reliable information on their diet, feeding behavior, and social ecology. Free-ranging dogs are reliant on humans, but anthropogenic food subsidies, particularly human faeces (i.e., coprophagy) have not previously been fully quantified. In this study we assess the contributions of different food types to the diet, and their influences on the social behaviour of free-ranging dogs in communal lands of rural Zimbabwe, with a focus on coprophagy. Free-ranging dog diets, body condition, and sociology were studied amongst 72 dogs over 18 months using scat analysis and direct observations. Human faeces constituted the fourth most common item in scats (56% occurrence) and contributed 21% by mass to the observed diet. Human faeces represented a valuable resource because relative to other food items it was consistently available, and of higher nutritional value than ‘sadza’ (maize porridge, the human staple and primary human-derived food), yielding 18.7% crude protein and 18.7 KJ/kg gross energy, compared to 8.3% and 18.5 KJ/kg for sadza, respectively. Human faeces had protein and energy values equivalent to mammal remains, another important food item. Dog condition was generally good, with 64% of adult females and 74% of adult males in the highest two body condition scores (on a five point scale), suggesting a plentiful and high quality food supply. Dogs largely fed alone, perhaps as a consequence of the small, inert, and spatially dispersed items that comprise their diet, and its abundance. We discuss the relationships between sanitation, human development, the supply of human faeces, female dog fertility, and population control.

Dog and Cat Interactions in a Remote Aboriginal Community.

This study examined dog and cat demographics, roaming behaviours, and interspecific interactions in a remote Aboriginal island community using multiple methods. Our results revealed temporal differences between the roaming behaviours of dogs, cats, and wildlife. Dogs showed crepuscular behaviour, being active around dawn (5:30 a.m. to 9:30 a.m.) and dusk (6:00 p.m. and 11:35 p.m.). The majority of cats were active between dawn (6:30 a.m.) and dusk (7:30 p.m.) and travelled shorter distances than dogs. However, some cats were also observed roaming between dusk and dawn, and were likely to be hunting since flightless wildlife were also recorded on our remote-sensing cameras during this time. These baseline data provide evidence to suggest that new management programs are needed to reduce the number of roaming cats and therefore their potential impacts on native wildlife. Collaborations between Aboriginal owners and other stakeholders is necessary to design innovative and effective animal management and policy on the island.

A Novel Non-Invasive Selection Criterion for the Preservation of Primitive Dutch Konik Horses.

The Dutch Konik is valued from a genetic conservation perspective and also for its role in preservation of natural landscapes. The primary management objective for the captive breeding of this primitive horse is to maintain its genetic purity, whilst also maintaining the nature reserves on which they graze. Breeding selection has traditionally been based on phenotypic characteristics consistent with the breed description, and the selection of animals for removal from the breeding program is problematic at times due to high uniformity within the breed, particularly in height at the wither, colour (mouse to grey dun) and presence of primitive markings. With the objective of identifying an additional non-invasive selection criterion with potential uniqueness to the Dutch Konik, this study investigates the anatomic parameters of the distal equine limb, with a specific focus on the relative lengths of the individual splint bones. Post-mortem dissections performed on distal limbs of Dutch Konik (n = 47) and modern domesticated horses (n = 120) revealed significant differences in relation to the length and symmetry of the 2nd and 4th Metacarpals and Metatarsals. Distal limb characteristics with apparent uniqueness to the Dutch Konik are described which could be an important tool in the selection and preservation of the breed.

Characterisation of the main drivers of intra- and inter- breed variability in the plasma metabolome of dogs.

INTRODUCTION: Dog breeds are a consequence of artificial selection for specific attributes. These closed genetic populations have metabolic and physiological characteristics that may be revealed by metabolomic analysis. OBJECTIVES: To identify and characterise the drivers of metabolic differences in the fasted plasma metabolome and then determine metabolites differentiating breeds. METHODS: Fasted plasma samples were collected from dogs maintained under two environmental conditions (controlled and client-owned at home). The former (n = 33) consisted of three breeds (Labrador Retriever, Cocker Spaniel and Miniature Schnauzer) fed a single diet batch, the latter (n = 96), client-owned dogs consisted of 9 breeds (Beagle, Chihuahua, Cocker Spaniel, Dachshund, Golden Retriever, Greyhound, German Shepherd, Labrador Retriever and Maltese) consuming various diets under differing feeding regimens. Triplicate samples were taken from Beagle (n = 10) and Labrador Retriever (n = 9) over 3 months. Non-targeted metabolite fingerprinting was performed using flow infusion electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry which was coupled with multivariate data analysis. Metadata factors including age, gender, sexual status, weight, diet and breed were investigated. RESULTS: Breed differences were identified in the plasma metabolome of dogs housed in a controlled environment. Triplicate samples from two breeds identified intra-individual variability, yet breed separation was still observed. The main drivers of variance in dogs maintained in the home environment were associated with breed and gender. Furthermore, metabolite signals were identified that discriminated between Labrador Retriever and Cocker Spaniels in both environments. CONCLUSION: Metabolite fingerprinting of plasma samples can be used to investigate breed differences in client-owned dogs, despite added variance of diet, sexual status and environment.