Tactile Perception of the Hand in Children With an Upper Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate factors that cause impairment of hand function in children with an upper Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy (NBPP), we performed an in-depth analysis of tactile hand sensibility, especially the ability to correctly localize a sensory stimulus on their fingers. DESIGN: A cross-sectional investigation of children with NBPP, compared with healthy controls. The thickest Semmes-Weinstein (SW) monofilament was pressed on the radial or ulnar part of each fingertip (10 regions), while a screen prevented seeing the hand. SETTING: Tertiary referral center for nerve lesions in an academic hospital in The Netherlands. The control group was recruited at their school. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-one children with NBPP (mean age 10.0 y) and 25 controls (mean age 9.5 y; N=41). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Correct localization of the applied stimuli was evaluated, per region, per finger, and per dermatome with a test score. The affected side of the NBPP group was compared with the non-dominant hand of the controls. RESULTS: The ability to localize stimuli on the tips of the fingers in children with an upper NBPP was significantly diminished in all fingers, except for the little finger, as compared with healthy controls. Mean localization scores were 6.6 (thumb) and 6.3 (index finger) in the NBPP group and 7.6 in both fingers for controls (maximum score possible is 8.0). Localization scores were significant lower in regions attributed to dermatomes C6 (P<.001) and C7 (P=.001), but not to C8 (P=.115). CONCLUSION: Children with an upper NBPP showed a diminished and incorrect ability to localize sensory stimuli to their fingers. This finding is likely 1 of the factors underlying the impairment of hand function and should be addressed with sensory focused therapy.

What Range of Motion is Achieved 5 Years After External Rotationplasty of the Shoulder in Infants with an Obstetric Brachial Plexus Injury?

BACKGROUND: Obstetric brachial plexus injuries result from traction injuries during delivery, and 30% of these children have persisting functional limitations related to an external rotation deficit of the shoulder. Little is known about the long-term effect of soft-tissue procedures of the shoulder in patients with obstetric brachial plexus injuries. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: (1) After soft-tissue release for patients with passive external rotation less than 20° and age younger than 2 years and for patients older than 2 years with good external rotation strength, what are the improvements in passive external rotation and abduction arcs at 1 and 5 years? (2) For patients who underwent staged tendon transfer after soft-tissue release, what are the improvements in active external rotation and abduction arcs at 1 and 5 years? (3) For patients with passive external rotation less than 20° and no active external rotation, what are the improvements in active external rotation and abduction arcs at 1 and 5 years? METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of a longitudinally maintained institutional database. Between 1996 and 2009, 149 children underwent a soft-tissue procedure of the shoulder for an internal rotation contracture. The inclusion criteria were treatment with an internal contracture release and/or tendon transfer, a maximum age of 18 years at the time of surgery, and a minimum follow-up period of 2 years. Six patients were older than 18 years at the time of surgery and 31 children were seen at our clinic until 1 year postoperatively, but because they had good clinical results and lived far away from our center, these children were discharged to physical therapists in their hometown for annual follow-up. Thus, 112 children (59 boys) were available for analysis. Patients with passive external rotation less than 20° and age younger than 2 years and patients older than 2 years with good external rotation strength received soft-tissue release only (n = 37). Of these patients, 17 children did not have adequate active external rotation, and second-stage tendon transfer surgery was performed. For patients with passive external rotation less than 20° with no active external rotation, single-stage contracture release with tendon transfer was performed (n = 68). When no contracture was present (greater than 20° of external rotation) but the patient had an active deficit (n = 7), tendon transfer alone was performed; this group was not analyzed. A functional assessment of the shoulder was performed preoperatively and postoperatively at 6 weeks, 3 months, and annually thereafter and included abduction, external rotation in adduction and abduction, and the Mallet scale. RESULTS: Internal contracture release resulted in an improvement in passive external rotation in adduction and abduction of 29° (95% confidence interval, 21 to 38; p < 0.001) and 17° (95% CI, 10 to 24; p < 0.001) at 1 year of follow-up and 25° (95% CI, 15-35; p < 0.001) and 15° (95% CI, 7 to 24; p = 0.001) at 5 years. Because of insufficient strength of the external rotators after release, 46% of the children (17 of 37) underwent an additional tendon transfer for active external rotation, resulting in an improvement in active external rotation in adduction and abduction at each successive follow-up visit. Patients with staged transfers had improved active function; improvements in active external rotation in adduction and abduction were 49° (95% CI, 28 to 69; p < 0.05) and 45° (95% CI, 11 to 79; p < 0.001) at 1 year of follow-up and 38° (95% CI, 19 to 58; p < 0.05) and 23° (95% CI, -8 to 55; p < 0.001) at 5 years. In patients starting with less than 20° of passive external rotation and no active external rotation, after single-stage contracture release and tendon transfer, active ROM was improved. Active external rotation in adduction and abduction were 75° (95% CI, 66 to 84; p < 0.001) and 50° (95% CI, 43 to 57; p < 0.001) at 1 year of follow-up and 65° (95% CI, 50 to 79; p < 0.001) and 40° (95% CI, 28 to 52; p < 0.001) at 5 years. CONCLUSION: Young children with obstetric brachial plexus injuries who have internal rotation contractures may benefit from soft-tissue release. When active external rotation is lacking, soft-tissue release combined with tendon transfer improved active external rotation in this small series. Future studies on the degree of glenohumeral deformities and functional outcome might give more insight into the level of increase in external rotation. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, therapeutic study.

Needle electromyography at 1 month predicts paralysis of elbow flexion at 3 months in obstetric brachial plexus lesions.

AIM: Treatment decisions in obstetric brachial plexus lesions are often based on clinical paralysis of elbow flexion at 3 months of age, when electromyography (EMG) is misleading because motor unit potentials (MUPs) occur in clinically paralytic muscles. We investigated whether EMG at 1 week or 1 month identifies infants with flexion paralysis at 3 months, allowing early referral. METHOD: Forty-eight infants (27 females, 21 males) were prospectively studied. The presence or absence of flexion paralysis at around 1 week (median 9 d; range 5-17d), 1 month (median 31 d; range 24-53 d), and 3 months of age (median 87 d; range 77-106 d) was noted for clinical (shoulder external rotation, elbow flexion, extension, and supination) and EMG parameters (denervation activity, MUPs and polyphasic MUPs in the deltoid, biceps, and triceps muscles). RESULTS: At 1 month, the absence of biceps MUPs had a sensitivity of 95% for later flexion paralysis, and absence of deltoid MUPs had a sensitivity of 100% for flexion paralysis; the false-positive rates for the same findings were 21% and 33% respectively. EMG at 3 months was highly misleading as MUPs were seen in 19 of 20 clinically paralytic biceps muscles. INTERPRETATION: EMG at 1 month can identify severe cases of flexion paralysis for early referral EMG of the biceps at 3 months is highly misleading; the discrepancy between the EMG and clinical testing may be due to abnormal axonal branching and aberrant central motor control.

Hand Sensibility in Healthy Young Children.

BACKGROUND: The aims of the study were (1) to assess hand sensibility in healthy young children using instruments validated for adults; (2) to identify which test tools are suitable; and (3) to compare the dominant and nondominant sides. METHODS: Twenty-five healthy children aged seven to 11 years (mean = 9.5 years) were investigated. Sensibility was assessed with the Semmes-Weinstein monofilament test, two-point discrimination, localization test, and stereognosis object recognition. RESULTS: The thinnest Semmes-Weinstein filament (D = 2.83 mm) was felt at 94% of examined points. A two-point discrimination at the smallest distance of 2 mm was found in the thumb in 84% of children and in the index finger in 94%. Only 60% felt this distance in the fifth digit. The difference between little finger and index finger was statistically significant. Near-maximum value on the localization test was scored in both hands. All children had a 100% score for both hands in the stereognosis object recognition. CONCLUSIONS: Most children can detect touch in the digits at low pressure. The majority are able to discern two points 2 mm apart in the first and second digits, but significantly less so in the fifth digit. Children are well able to localize on which side of a fingertip pressure is applied. Objects are recognized well. There appear to be no differences between the dominant and nondominant hands in either test. Adjustment of sensory test protocols routinely used in adults is necessary to optimize hand sensation testing in children, in view of the detection limits.

Sensibility of the Hand in Children With Conservatively or Surgically Treated Upper Neonatal Brachial Plexus Lesion.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to assess the sensibility of the hand in children with a neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) involving the C5 and C6, and to correlate results with dexterity. METHODS: Fifty children with NBPP (30 after nerve surgery, mean age 9.8 years) and 25 healthy controls (mean age 9.6 years) were investigated. Sensibility was assessed with two-point discrimination and Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. Dexterity was evaluated with a single item from the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2. We compared the affected side with the nondominant hand of the control group. RESULTS: The sensibility in the first and second fingers was significantly diminished in the NBPP for both two-point discrimination (P = 0.005 and P = 0.014, respectively) and monofilament test (P < 0.001). Dexterity was significantly lower in the NBPP group than in control group, corrected for age (P = 0.023). There was a significant difference toward decreasing hand function with decreasing sensibility according to the Semmes-Weinstein test for the thumb (Jonckheere-Terpstra nonparametric trend test, P = 0.036). CONCLUSIONS: The sensibility of the thumb and index finger in children with an upper plexus lesion (either surgically or conservatively treated) is diminished. The decreased sensibility has a negative impact on hand function. Appreciation of diminished hand function in patients with NBPP involving C5 and C6 is important to optimize treatment.

Impaired Automatic Arm Movements in Obstetric Brachial Plexus Palsy Suggest a Central Disorder.

The authors aimed to find evidence for a central component of the impairment of movement of the affected arm in children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy. The authors performed a cross-sectional study in 19 children (median age 5 years) with obstetric brachial plexus palsy who were able to voluntarily abduct their affected arm beyond 90 degrees. They were asked to perform 4 tasks designed to provoke automatic arm movements to maintain balance. The authors assumed automatic motor programming to be impaired when 2 of 3 investigators agreed using video recordings that the affected arm did not abduct beyond 90 degrees while the unaffected arm did. Children abducted the affected arm less often than the healthy one (generalized binary logistic model of all 4 tasks, P = .001). The deficit during automatic arm abduction was not observed during voluntary movements and therefore cannot be explained by a peripheral deficit, suggesting a central component.

Severe obstetric brachial plexus palsies can be identified at one month of age.

OBJECTIVE: To establish whether severe obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) can be identified reliably at or before three months of age. METHODS: Severe OBPP was defined as neurotmesis or avulsion of spinal nerves C5 and C6 irrespective of additional C7-T1 lesions, assessed during surgery and confirmed by histopathological examination. We first prospectively studied a derivation group of 48 infants with OBPP with a minimal follow-up of two years. Ten dichotomous items concerning active clinical joint movement and needle electromyography of the deltoid, biceps and triceps muscles were gathered at one week, one month and three months of age. Predictors for a severe lesion were identified using a two-step forward logistic regression analysis. The results were validated in two independent cohorts of OBPP infants of 60 and 13 infants. RESULTS: Prediction of severe OBPP at one month of age was better than at one week and at three months. The presence of elbow extension, elbow flexion and of motor unit potentials in the biceps muscle correctly predicted whether lesions were mild or severe in 93.6% of infants in the derivation group (sensitivity 1.0, specificity 0.88), in 88.3% in the first validation group (sensitivity 0.97, specificity 0.76) and in 84.6% in the second group (sensitivity of 1.0, specificity 0.66). INTERPRETATION: Infants with OBPP with severe lesions can be identified at one month of age by testing elbow extension, elbow flexion and recording motor unit potentials (MUPs) in the biceps muscle. The decision rule implies that children without active elbow extension at one month should be referred to a specialized center, while children with active elbow extension as well as active flexion should not. When there is active elbow extension, but no active elbow flexion an EMG is needed; absence of MUPs in the biceps muscle is an indication for referral.

External rotation as a result of suprascapular nerve neurotization in obstetric brachial plexus lesions.

OBJECTIVE: Obstetric brachial plexus lesions may cause lifelong limitations of upper limb function. Nerve repair is widely advocated in infants who do not show spontaneous recovery. Typically, the suprascapular nerve (SSN) is involved in the lesion. Neurotization of the SSN routinely is performed, aiming at reinnervation of the infraspinatus muscle to restore external rotation. The results after SSN neurotization have not, as yet, been studied in detail; therefore, this study was undertaken. Of special interest was the comparison of two commonly applied SSN neurotization procedures: nerve grafting from C5 versus nerve transfer of the accessory nerve. METHODS: Infants with obstetric brachial plexus lesions after nerve grafting of C5 to the SSN (n = 65) or nerve transfer of the accessory nerve to the SSN (n = 21) were selected for retrospective analysis after a mean follow-up period of 3 years. Outcome was expressed in degrees of true glenohumeral external rotation. This was defined as the angle between the position of the 90 degrees (actively or passively) flexed elbow resting against the abdomen and the position of the flexed elbow after external rotation with the upper arm held in adduction by the investigator. This movement can be executed only by infraspinatus muscle contraction. In addition, functional external rotation was evaluated by testing the ability to reach the mouth and the back of the head. RESULTS: Only 17 (20%) of the 86 patients reached more than 20 degrees of external rotation, whereas 35 (41%) were unable to perform true external rotation. There was no statistically significant difference between nerve grafting from C5 and extraplexal nerve transfer using the accessory nerve. Functional scores showed that 88% can reach the mouth and that 75% can reach the head. CONCLUSION: The restoration of a fair range of true glenohumeral external rotation after neurotization of the SSN in infants with obstetric brachial plexus lesions, whether by grafting from C5 or by nerve transfer of the accessory nerve, is disappointingly low. However, it seems that compensatory techniques contribute to effectuate a considerable range of movement.