Combining environmental factors and agriculturalists' observations of environmental changes in the traditional terrace system of the Amalfi coast (southern Italy).

Terraces are traditional engineered ecosystems that affect the hydro-geological equilibrium, slope stability, and local communities. The aims of this paper are (i) identifying environmental factors that affect terrace stability in the Amalfi Coast, (ii) defining agriculturalists' observations on environmental changes within that system and (iii) exploring potentiality of these observations to better define conservation strategies. All available data on physical and ecological factors recognized to affect the terrace system were collected and analyzed. Interviews were conducted with agriculturalists to obtain long-term observations on environmental factors that interact with this system. Landslides are more frequent where rainfall is high and during winter. Fires have an uneven annual distribution, with higher frequency during summers. Agriculturalists detailed complex interactions among environmental factors, economic elements, and terraces. These observations represent a valuable resource for defining causes and effects of abandonment and for better addressing conservation strategies.

Recolonization dynamics of marble monuments after cleaning treatments: A nine-year follow-up study.

The prevention and control of biological patinas on outdoor stone monuments represent a demanding challenge for the conservation of cultural heritage also due to some microorganisms, particularly resistant to treatments, such as black meristematic fungi, an eco-physiological group well known for its tolerance to extreme conditions. Even if several methods and eco-friendly products have been proposed as new alternatives, traditional biocides are still far from being completely replaced. Recolonization is a natural process that occurs sooner or later after cleaning. The time that elapses until its occurrence can vary considerably depending on environmental conditions and the used products; unfortunately, the papers describing the effect of treatments over time are rare. This work aims to shed light on the recolonization process of marble surfaces in the ancient monumental cemetery of Bonaria (Cagliari) after nine years from treatments, evaluating the long-term efficiency of two different cleaning methods, namely dimethyl sulfoxide-based gel (DMSO-based gel) and Biotin T (a didecyldimethylammonium chloride-based product-). In this context, the microflora present before treatments and in the following years was assessed by culture-based methods and identified by molecular techniques, with attention on black meristematic fungi, which were used as reference for the most resistant lithobiontic organisms. Different environmental parameters, such as temperature, exposition, dominant winds, and rainfall, were considered, and infrared thermography, portable light microscopy, and image analysis were used. This research evidenced the influence of water availability and lightning in recolonization processes, the transition from the pioneer fungal community versus more resistant black fungal species after Biotin T treatment, and the long-lasting efficiency of the DMSO-based gel. These findings prove that this low-impact method deserves more attention in the conservation of outdoor marble monuments, emphasizing the importance of long-term studies.

In Vitro Viability Tests of New Ecofriendly Nanosystems Incorporating Essential Oils for Long-Lasting Conservation of Stone Artworks.

The study explores the application of natural biocides (oregano essential oil and eugenol, directly applied in solutions or encapsulated within silica nanocapsules) for safeguarding stone cultural heritage from biodeterioration, using green algae (Chlorococcum sp.) and cyanobacteria (Leptolyngbya sp.) as common pioneer biodeteriogens. Core-shell nanocontainers were built for a controlled release of microbicidal agents, a safe application of chemicals and a prolonged efficacy. The qualitative and quantitative evaluations of biocide efficiency at different doses were periodically performed in vitro, after six scheduled intervals of time (until 100 days). The release kinetics of composite biocide-embedding silica nanocapsules were characterized by the UV-Vis spectroscopy technique. Data showed both promising potential and some limitations. The comparative tests of different biocidal systems shed light on their variable efficacy against microorganisms, highlighting how encapsulation influences the release dynamics and the overall effectiveness. Both the essential oils showed a potential efficacy in protective antifouling coatings for stone artifacts. Ensuring compatibility with materials, understanding their differences in biocidal activity and their release rates becomes essential in tailoring gel, microemulsion or coating products for direct on-site application.

Plants as Symbols of Power in the Achaemenid Iconography of Ancient Persian Monuments.

The art of the Achaemenid Empire flourished in Ancient Persia from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, and featured stone-carved monumental structures adorned with recurring zoological and floral patterns. Such representations clearly had a symbolic meaning intimately connected to religious expression and the will of deities. Considering the lack of any comprehensive analysis of botanical features, we investigate the recurring plant patterns and the variety of plants depicted. An analysis of the documentation referring mainly to monuments in the two main capitals of Darius I, Persepolis and Susa, showed the presence of certain repetitive elements, such as the so-called rosettes (composed variously of Asteraceae capitula and Nymphaea flowers), palms (Phoenix dactylifera, the tree of life), pines, flowers or bunches and metamorphic elements. Some plants are described in this paper for the first time in the context of Persian iconography, such as Mandragora officinalis in offering scenes as a symbol of fertility and protection against evil spirits, Pinus brutia var. eldarica as a symbol of immortality and elevation to the gods, and the capitula of Matricaria/Leucanthemum as solar symbols. Further interesting elements include cf. Myrtus communis in some crowns and probably cf. Ephedra sp. in offering scenes. Achaemenid art was deeply influenced by the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia with its great attention to nature as well as by the nearby civilizations of the Mesopotamian area and Egypt. Most elements were also associated with psychotropic or medicinal attributes, which contributed to their position as symbols of power.

The Roman Houses of the Caelian Hill (Rome, Italy): Multitemporal Evaluation of Biodeterioration Patterns.

Like other hypogeal environments, the Roman Houses of the Caelian Hill are prone to unwanted biological growth. Wide conservative interventions have been carried out at the beginning of this millenium to reduce biodeterioration and physical-chemical damages. Retracing the last monitoring work, we assessed the site's current state of conservation and biodeterioration intending to check the previous treatments' effectiveness and deepen the common knowledge of the subterranean biota and their possible biodeteriogenic effects. Starting from the past test areas and the previous identifications of the occurring biodeteriogens, we further isolated and identified the main eubacterial, fungal, and phototrophic settlers, focusing on some detrimental traits for wall paintings (i.e., acid production and carbonate precipitation). The achieved results proved the success of the performed interventions in reducing the wall's water content. Otherwise, the new conditions raise, in the long term, new concerns about lampenflora, carbonate precipitations, and salt efflorescence. Here, the Caelian Houses' new status is documented. The possible favouring conditions for the different groups of biodeteriogens, along with the taxonomical novelties, additional risks tied to the anthropization of the resident culturable microbial community, and the possible relation between the black fungus Cyphellophora olivacea and roots, are reported and discussed.

Science for art: multi-years' evaluations of biocidal efficacy in support of artwork conservation.

In recent decades, the relationship between Science and Art has been gradually strengthened through the use of diagnostic, conservation, and valorization technologies. New technologies can also be used to support the creation and durability of bio-artworks. Within such a context, starting from the Spring of 2014, we performed in situ experimentations to eventually increase the durability of the graphical artwork of William Kentridge on the Lungotevere embankments, whose creation was scheduled in the following years. We applied various combinations and concentrations of three different biocides (Algophase, Biotin R, and Preventol R80) and two water repellents (Hydrophase surfaces and Silo 111) on 34 test areas. However, the artist preferred to leave his artwork to a natural fading. Right before the realization of the graphical artwork "Triumph and Laments of Rome" in 2016, just the black biological colonizations mainly composed of cyanobacteria were removed through pressurized water. We monitored the artist's work through analyses of images and colorimetric variations and such drawings showed a duration of 4 years in the natural conditions of recolonization. Here we show how the recolonization of treated and control areas, analyzed with the same methods, showed an increased duration, 3 years longer than under natural conditions in the case of Preventol R80® and Biotin R® plus Silo 111®. The tested solutions showed differential effectiveness and multiple possibilities of use to support the maintenance of the artwork if the artist wanted to preserve his artwork for a longer period.

Understanding the Lost: Reconstruction of the Garden Design of Villa Peretti Montalto (Rome, Italy) for Urban Valorization.

Urbanization and urban regeneration can significantly impact cultural heritage, but a greater knowledge of the past natural and historical features is needed to value the past and understand the present. The lost Villa Peretti Montalto in Rome, once located in the area that corresponds to the current front side of Termini station, deserves great attention due to its cultural value. This work aimed to provide a floristic and functional reconstruction of the gardens of the villa during the XVI and XVII Centuries. From several bibliographic and iconographic sources, a critical analysis and interpretation of plant names was conducted. A list of 87 species and their location in the different garden sectors, during different periods with their specific uses, is provided. The arboreal design was made by classical species in the Roman context, like Cupressus sempervirens, Pinus pinea, Quercus ilex, and Ulmus glabra. In addition, ancient lost varieties of fruit trees (mainly Pyrus communis and Ficus carica) and several species of conservation interest were found. The knowledge of the ancient flora in historical gardens could be a key tool in urban greenery planning and touristic and cultural valorization.

Selecting the best candidates for resurrecting extinct-in-the-wild plants from herbaria.

Resurrecting extinct species is a fascinating and challenging idea for scientists and the general public. Whereas some theoretical progress has been made for animals, the resurrection of extinct plants (de-extinction sensu lato) is a relatively recently discussed topic. In this context, the term 'de-extinction' is used sensu lato to refer to the resurrection of 'extinct in the wild' species from seeds or tissues preserved in herbaria, as we acknowledge the current impossibility of knowing a priori whether a herbarium seed is alive and can germinate. In plants, this could be achieved by germinating or in vitro tissue-culturing old diaspores such as seeds or spores available in herbarium specimens. This paper reports the first list of plant de-extinction candidates based on the actual availability of seeds in herbarium specimens of globally extinct plants. We reviewed globally extinct seed plants using online resources and additional literature on national red lists, resulting in a list of 361 extinct taxa. We then proposed a method of prioritizing candidates for seed-plant de-extinction from diaspores found in herbarium specimens and complemented this with a phylogenetic approach to identify species that may maximize evolutionarily distinct features. Finally, combining data on seed storage behaviour and longevity, as well as specimen age in the novel 'best de-extinction candidate' score (DEXSCO), we identified 556 herbarium specimens belonging to 161 extinct species with available seeds. We expect that this list of de-extinction candidates and the novel approach to rank them will boost research efforts towards the first-ever plant de-extinction.

Dark-pigmented biodeteriogenic fungi in etruscan hypogeal tombs: New data on their culture-dependent diversity, favouring conditions, and resistance to biocidal treatments.

Subterranean Cultural Heritage sites are frequently subject to biological colonization due to the high levels of humidity, even in conditions of low irradiance and oligotrophy. Here microorganisms form complex communities that may be dangerous through mineral precipitation, through the softening of materials or causing frequent surface discolorations. A reduction of contamination's sources along with the control of microclimatic conditions and biocide treatments (overall performed with benzalkonium chloride) are necessary to reduce microbial growths. Dark discolorations have been recorded in the painted Etruscan tombs of Tarquinia, two of which have been analyzed to collect taxonomical, physiological, and ecological information. Eighteen dark-pigmented fungi were isolated among a wider culturable fraction: nine from blackening areas and nine from door sealings, a possible route of contamination. Isolates belonged to three major groups: Chaetothyriales, Capnodiales (Family Cladosporiaceae), and Acremonium-like fungi. Exophiala angulospora and Cyphellophora olivacea, a novelty for hypogea, were identified, while others need further investigations as possible new taxa. The metabolic skills of the detected species showed their potential dangerousness for the materials. Their tolerance to benzalkonium chloride-based products suggested a certain favouring effect through the decreasing competitiveness of less resistant species. The type of covering of the dromos may influence the risk of outer contamination. Fungal occurrence can be favoured by root penetration.

Plant DNA Barcode as a Tool for Root Identification in Hypogea: The Case of the Etruscan Tombs of Tarquinia (Central Italy).

Roots can produce mechanical and chemical alterations to building structures, especially in the case of underground historical artifacts. In archaeological sites, where vegetation plays the dual role of naturalistic relevance and potential threat, trees and bushes are under supervision. No customized measures can be taken against herbaceous plants lacking fast and reliable root identification methods that are useful to assess their dangerousness. In this study, we aimed to test the efficacy of DNA barcoding in identifying plant rootlets threatening the Etruscan tombs of the Necropolis of Tarquinia. As DNA barcode markers, we selected two sections of the genes rbcL and matK, the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (nrITS), and the intergenic spacer psbA-trnH. All fourteen root samples were successfully sequenced and identified at species (92.9%) and genus level (7.01%) by GenBank matching and reference dataset implementation. Some eudicotyledons with taproots, such as Echium italicum L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., and Reseda lutea L. subsp. lutea, showed a certain recurrence. Further investigations are needed to confirm this promising result, increasing the number of roots and enlarging the reference dataset with attention to meso-Mediterranean perennial herbaceous species. The finding of herbaceous plants roots at more than 3 m deep confirms their potential risk and underlines the importance of vegetation planning, monitoring, and management on archaeological sites.

Multitemporal floristic analysis on a humid area in Rome's archaeological site as indicator for environmental change.

A multitemporal analysis on a humid area in Rome's archaeological site is presented; the floristic data are used as bioindicators for main environmental changes over the last 50 years. By comparing the structural, biogeographical and ecological features of today's florula with the ones of a 1955 survey, and by assessing the new, the rare and the locally disappeared species, it was possible to define and analyse the main floristic changes and their ecological meaning for this site. Our results show that the floristic richness of the area did not differ significantly from 1955. However, the species composition has changed considerably: over 40% of the species have disappeared. More than half of these were rare and typical of humid environments. Approximately the same number of species has appeared but these are mainly ruderal and widespread entities, with the overall result being a progressive and general vulgarization of the local flora. Finally, we analyse the main reasons, linked for the most part to human activities, which led to the reported floristic changes.

Traditional Salads and Soups with Wild Plants as a Source of Antioxidants: A Comparative Chemical Analysis of Five Species Growing in Central Italy.

The interest and demand for nutraceuticals are rapidly increasing in many industrialized countries due to the emergence of health risks associated with the increased consumption of processed foods. Several wild Mediterranean plants used as traditional foods are an extraordinary source of nutraceutical substances with antioxidant properties. This study has two main aims: (1) to quantify the antioxidant properties of traditional wild food plants and (2) to determine if their use in soups (i.e., the cooking process) can alter their beneficial properties. We have evaluated the antioxidant capacity (ABTS, DPPH) and the Total Phenolic Content (Folin-Ciocalteu) of five herbaceous plants traditionally consumed in several areas of Central Italy: (A) Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth, (B) Hypochaeris radicata L., (C) Cichorium intybus L., (D) Tordylium apulum L., and (E) Helminthotheca echioides (L.) Holub. Our analyses show good levels of antioxidant capacity for all plants, with Reichardia picroides and Helminthotheca echioides having the highest levels. There is a high correlation between the antioxidant activity and the Total Phenolic Content especially in Reichardia picroides (R2=0.92) and Hypochaeris radicata (R2=0.93). Boiling the species caused a general decrease in the antioxidant activity and polyphenols. Our study confirms the health benefits of consuming wild plants, especially raw ones in salads. It also supports the use of ethnobotanical information to study and then promote the consumption of wild food plants.

Ethnobotanical uses of neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.; Meliaceae) leaves in Bali (Indonesia) and the Indian subcontinent in relation with historical background and phytochemical properties.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Neem (Azadirachta indica; Meliaceae) is widely known for its cold pressed seed oil, mainly used as insecticide, but also for cosmetic, medicinal and agricultural uses. The seed oil is widely employed in the Indian subcontinent, and the leaves seem to have a lower relevance, but the ethnobotanical information of Bali (Indonesia) considers the utilisation of leaves for medicinal properties. AIM OF THE STUDY: We report ethnopharmacological information about current uses of neem, in particular of the leaves, besides the insecticidal one, we discuss on the historical background of their uses. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethnobotanical data were collected using both literature and scientific references and semi-structured interviews with 50 informants (ages ranged between 14 and 76 years old) through the snowball method in thirteen aga (indigenous Balinese) villages, following Ethic code procedures. The informants were asked to specify: which part of the plant was used, and how that plant part was used. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium voucher. In consideration of the high variability and complex chemical constituent of neem, a HPTLC analysis of neem leaves coming from both the Indonesian island of Bali and the Indian subcontinent was carried out. RESULTS: The data on the medical use of traditional preparations from leaves of neem display a wide spectrum of applications. In the Indian subcontinent, neem leaves are used to treat dental and gastrointestinal disorders, malaria fevers, skin diseases, and as insects repellent, while the Balinese used neem leaves as a diuretic and for diabetes, headache, heartburn, and stimulating the appetite. Differences in utilisation cannot be related to chemical differences and other constituents besides limonoids must be investigated and related to the multipurpose activity of neem. CONCLUSION: This study revealed that neem leaves are believed to treat diabetes in both Balinese and Indian communities. Limonoids can not be considered the only responsible of digestive properties. Further research would be the validation of this report by enzymatic tests and the identification of active constituents.

Folk phytotherapeutical plants from Maratea area (Basilicata, Italy).

Field ethnobotanical survey was undertaken for the period of 2002-2003 in the Tyrrhenian part of the Basilicata region of southern Italy. Data of 56 species of plants belonging to 29 families where gathered through interviews; among the species, 47 are used in human therapy, 6 as insect repellents, 15 in veterinary medicine, 1 for its ichthyotoxic properties and 3 for magic therapeutic purposes. The most important findings in ethnomedicine relate to Nasturtium officinale (renal colic, liver diseases), Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum (mouth ulcers), Leopoldia comosa (toothache, headache), Micromeria graeca subsp. graeca (coughs) and Ceterach officinarum (malaria), while in the ethnoveterinary field, we have Pteridium aquilinum (wolf bites) and Spartium junceum (fractures of animal limbs).

Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: Traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Loloh are herbal drinks produced and consumed exclusively in Bali (Indonesia) to prevent and treat different ailments. This is the first study to document plants species used as Loloh, reporting the phytochemical components and pharmacological properties of the most cited plants. Documenting the plants used in herbal drinks in Bali by local communities to treat various ailments (providing some information on phytochemistry and pharmacology of the most interesting plants). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethnobotanical data were obtained through semi-structured interviews (individual and group discussions) and questionnaires. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium vouchers. RESULTS: A total of 51 plants species (belonging to 32 families) have been documented for their use in the various preparation of Loloh. Different plants and plant parts are used to prepare Loloh to treat heartburn, fever, diarrhea, hypertension, aphthous stomatitis (canker sores), and other minor health problems. These plants are mainly prepared as decoctions, are juiced or simply added to the preparation. The most cited plants (>30 informants) are Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., Cinnamomum burmanni Nees ex Bl., and Piper betle L. These plants are well studied with multiple demonstrated pharmacological activities (e.g., antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic). CONCLUSION: The Balinese communities still preserve a rich ethnobotanical knowledge. Several species are well known for their pharmacological properties, but some [such as Pneumatopteris callosa (Blume) Nakai and Dendrocnide stimulans (L. f.) Chew] are understudied and could be promising candidates for further research.

Plants used in artisanal fisheries on the Western Mediterranean coasts of Italy.

BACKGROUND: Artisanal fisheries in the Mediterranean, especially in Italy, have been poorly investigated. There is a long history of fishing in this region, and it remains an important economic activity in many localities. Our research entails both a comprehensive review of the relevant literature and 58 field interviews with practitioners on plants used in fishing activities along the Western Mediterranean Italian coastal regions. The aims were to record traditional knowledge on plants used in fishery in these regions and to define selection criteria for plant species used in artisanal fisheries, considering ecology and intrinsic properties of plants, and to discuss the pattern of diffusion of shared uses in these areas. METHODS: Information was gathered both from a general review of ethnobotanical literature and from original data. A total of 58 semi-structured interviews were carried out in Liguria, Latium, Campania and Sicily (Italy). Information on plant uses related to fisheries were collected and analyzed through a chi-square residual analysis and the correspondence analysis in relation to habitat, life form and chorology. RESULTS: A total of 60 plants were discussed as being utilized in the fisheries of the Western Italian Mediterranean coastal regions, with 141 different uses mentioned. Of these 141 different uses, 32 are shared among different localities. A multivariate statistical analysis was performed on the entire dataset, resulting in details about specific selection criteria for the different usage categories (plants have different uses that can be classified into 11 main categories). In some uses, species are selected for their features (e.g., woody), or habitat (e.g., riverine), etc. The majority of uses were found to be obsolete (42%) and interviews show that traditional fishery knowledge is in decline. There are several reasons for this, such as climatic change, costs, reduction of fish stocks, etc. CONCLUSIONS: Our research correlates functional characteristics of the plants used in artisanal fishery and habitats, and discusses the distribution of these uses. This research is the first comprehensive outline of plant role in artisanal fisheries and traditional fishery knowledge in the Mediterranean, specifically in Italy.

The bacterial aetiology of rosy discoloration of ancient wall paintings.

The inventory of microorganisms responsible for biological deterioration of ancient paintings has become an integral part of restoration activities. Here, the microbial agent of rosy discoloration on medieval frescoes in the Crypt of the Original Sin (Matera, Italy) was investigated by a combination of microscopic, molecular and spectroscopic approaches. The bacterial community from three rosy-discoloured painting sites was characterized by 16S rRNA gene-based techniques. The eubacterial population was prevalently composed of Actinobacteria, among which Rubrobacter radiotolerans-related bacteria accounted for 63-87% of the 16S rRNA gene pool per sampled site. Archaea, with prevalence of Haloarchaea-related species, were detected in one of the three sites where they accounted for < 0.1% of the total 16S rRNA gene pool. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the identity between R. radiotolerans carotenoids (bacterioruberins) and pigments responsible for colour alteration of frescoes. This investigation provides the first evidence of a causal relationship between heavy contamination by Rubrobacter-related bacterioruberin-producing bacteria and rosy discoloration of ancient wall paintings.

Food, flavouring and feed plant traditions in the Tyrrhenian sector of Basilicata, Italy.

BACKGROUND: Research was carried out in the years 2002-2003 into food, flavouring and feed folk traditions of plants in the Tyrrhenian part of the Basilicata region (southern Italy). This area was colonized in ancient times by Greeks. Data was collected through field interviews, especially of farmers. METHODS: Field data were collected through structured interviews. The informants, numbered 49, belonged to families which had strong links with the traditional activities of the area. RESULTS: 61 taxa are cited, belonging to 26 botanical families, amongst which 44 used as food or flavouring and 22 for animal alimentation. Besides 7 taxa are involved in rituals especially connected with agriculture and plant growth. CONCLUSION: The preservation of some rituals especially concerning agricultural plants is noteworthy in the area, together with a certain degree of continuity in food uses. Knowledge and rediscovery of recipes in human and animal diet could represent an economic potential for the area.

Agricultural, domestic and handicraft folk uses of plants in the Tyrrhenian sector of Basilicata (Italy).

BACKGROUND: Research was carried out into agricultural and domestic-handicraft uses in folk traditions in the Tyrrhenian sector of the Basilicata region (southern Italy), as it is typically representative of ethnobotanical applications in the Mediterranean area. From the point of view of furnishing a botanical support for the study of local "material culture" data was collected through field interviews of 49 informants, most of whom were farmers. RESULTS: The taxa cited are 60, belonging to 32 botanical families, of which 18 are employed for agricultural uses and 51 for domestic-handicraft folk uses. Data show a diffuse use of plants for many purposes, both in agricultural (present uses 14%; past uses 1%) and for domestic-handicraft use (present uses 40%; past uses 45%); most of the latter are now in decline. CONCLUSION: 60 data look uncommon or typical of the places studied. Some domestic-handicraft folk uses are typical of southern Italy (e.g. the use of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus for making ties, ropes, torches, baskets or that of Acer neapolitanum for several uses). Other uses (e.g. that of Inula viscosa and Calamintha nepeta for peculiar brooms, and of Origanum heracleoticum for dyeing wool red) are previously unpublished.