Dissociation of N2 on a Si(111)-7x7 Surface at Room Temperature.

We demonstrate that the strong N2 bond can be efficiently dissociated at low pressure and ambient temperature on a Si(111)-7x7 surface. The reaction was experimentally investigated by scanning tunnelling microscopy and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. Experimental and density functional theory results suggest that relatively low thermal energy collision of N2 with the surface can facilitate electron transfer from the Si(111)-7x7 surface to the π*-antibonding orbitals of N2 that significantly weaken the N2 bond. This activated N2 triple bond dissociation on the surface leads to the formation of a Si3 N interface.

Degradation of Sub-Micrometer Sensitive Polymer Layers of Acoustic Sensors Exposed to Chlorpyrifos Water-Solution.

The detection of organophosphates, a wide class of pesticides, in water-solution has a huge impact in environmental monitoring. Acoustic transducers are used to design passive wireless sensors for the direct detection of pesticides in water-solution by using tailored polymers as sensitive layers. We demonstrate by combining analytical chemistry tools that organophosphate molecules strongly alter polymer layers widely used in acoustic sensors in the presence of water. This chemical degradation can limit the use of these polymers in detection of organophosphates in water-solution.

Nano-sheets of two-dimensional polymers with dinuclear (arene)ruthenium nodes, synthesised at a liquid/liquid interface.

We developed a new class of mono- or few-layered two-dimensional polymers based on dinuclear (arene)ruthenium nodes, obtained by combining the imine condensation with an interfacial chemistry process, and use a modified Langmuir-Schaefer method to transfer them onto solid surfaces. Robust nano-sheets of two-dimensional polymers including dinuclear complexes of heavy ruthenium atoms as nodes were synthesised. These nano-sheets, whose thickness is of a few tens of nanometers, were suspended onto solid porous membranes. Then, they were thoroughly characterised with a combination of local probes, including Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy in imaging and diffraction mode.

Stable self-assembly of dipolar molecules on an Au(111) surface under UHV and an inert-atmosphere.

The growth of an extended supramolecular network using dipolar molecules as the building blocks is of great technological interest. We investigated the self-assembly of a dipolar molecule on an Au(111) surface. The formation of an extended two-dimensional network was demonstrated by scanning tunnelling microscopy under ultra-high vacuum and explained in terms of molecule-molecule interactions. This 2D-network is still stable under the pressure of one atmosphere of nitrogen, which demonstrated its interest for the development of submolecular-precisely polyfunctional smart surfaces.

Soluble Two-Dimensional Covalent Organometallic Polymers by (Arene)Ruthenium-Sulfur Chemistry.

A class of two-dimensional (2D) covalent organometallic polymers, with nanometer-scale crosslinking, was obtained by arene(ruthenium) sulfur chemistry. Their ambivalent nature, with positively charged crosslinks and lypophylic branches is the key to the often sought-for and usually hard-to-achieve solubility of 2D polymers in various kinds of solvents. Solubility is here controlled by the planarity of the polymer, which in turn controls Coulomb interactions between the polymer layers. High planarity is achieved for high symmetry crosslinks and short, rigid branches. Owing to their solubility, the polymers are easily processable, and can be handled as powder, deposited on surfaces by mere spin-coating, or suspended across membranes by drop-casting. The novel 2D materials are potential candidates as flexible membranes for catalysis, cancer therapy, and electronics.

Controlled Directional Motions of Molecular Vehicles, Rotors, and Motors: From Metallic to Silicon Surfaces, a Strategy to Operate at Higher Temperatures.

In the last decade, many nanomachines with controlled molecular motions have been studied, mainly on metallic surfaces, which are easy to obtain very clean, and are stable over months. However, the studies of mechanical properties of nanomachines are mainly performed at very low temperatures, usually between 5 and 80 K, which prevents any kind of applications. In this Minireview, we will present our strategy to operate at higher temperatures, in particular through the use of semiconducting silicon surfaces. We also review our best achievements in the field through some examples of rotating molecular machines that have been designed, synthesized, and studied in our groups. On metallic surfaces, the nanovehicles are molecules with two or four triptycenes as wheels and the molecular motor is built around a ruthenium organometallic center with a piano-stool geometry and peripheric ferrocenyl groups. On semiconducting silicon surfaces, vehicles are also made from triptycene fragments and the rotor is a pentaphenylbenzene molecule.

Surface-induced optimal packing of two-dimensional molecular networks.

High-density packing in organic crystals is usually associated with an increase of the coordination between molecules. Such a concept is not necessarily extended to two-dimensional molecular networks self-assembled on a solid surface, for which we demonstrate the key role of the surface in inducing the optimal packing. By a combination of scanning tunneling microscopy experiments and multiscale computer simulations, we study the phase transition between two polymorphs. We find that, contrary to intuition, the structure with the lowest packing fraction corresponds to the highest molecular coordination number, due to the competition between surface and intermolecular forces. Having the lowest free energy, this structure spreads out as the most stable polymorph over a wide range of molecular concentrations.

Seeding molecular rotators on a passivated silicon surface.

Thermally activated rotation of single molecules adsorbed on a silicon-based surface between 77 and 150 K has been successfully achieved. This remarkable phenomenon relies on a nanoporous supramolecular network, which acts as a template to seed periodic molecule rotors on the surface. Thermal activation of rotation has been demonstrated by STM experiments and confirmed by theoretical calculations.

Package-Less Liquid Phase Sensing Using Surface Acoustic Waves on Lithium Tantalate Oxide.

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) transducers propagating shear waves are compatible with sensing chemical compounds in a liquid phase. However, if the liquid surrounding the sensor possesses a higher permittivity than the piezoelectric substrate, then the interdigitated electrodes for converting the incoming electromagnetic wave to acoustic waves are susceptible to capacitive short-circuiting, leading to excessive insertion losses. By using high-permittivity lithium tantalate oxide (LTO), we demonstrate chemical sensing in water without the need for dedicated microfluidic packaging. Nevertheless, the gravimetric sensitivity of these package-less transmission Love-mode delay lines remains comparable to that of low-permittivity quartz when appropriately tuning the guiding layer of thin film to confine energy to the surface in a Love mode. We extend the transmission line gravimetric sensitivity measurement to a reflective delay line geometry for passive transducers that can be wirelessly probed. For instance, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) can be used for subsurface sensing, here targeting water pollution detection, operating in the 100-500-MHz range. This center frequency was selected as a tradeoff between penetration depth (lower frequency) and antenna size (smaller at higher frequency). Nonspecific binding of proteins detection is shown in the context of biosensing applications.

Self-assembled viologens on HOPG: solid-state NMR and AFM unravel the location of the anions.

The controlled growth of self-assembled networks on surfaces based on viologen salts is a major scientific challenge due to their unique electronic properties. The combination of solid-state NMR spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy at ambient conditions can unravel the fine organization of the supramolecular network on a graphitic surface by positioning the counter-ions relative to the viologen cation.

A Kinetic Approach to Synergize Bactericidal Efficacy and Biocompatibility in Silver-Based Sol-Gel Coatings.

Silver ions are antimicrobial agents with powerful action against bacteria. Applications in surface treatments, as Ag+-functionalized sol-gel coatings, are expected in the biomedical field to prevent contaminations and infections. The potential cytotoxicity of Ag+ cations toward human cells is well known though. However, few studies consider both the bactericidal activity and the biocompatibility of the Ag+-functionalized sol-gels. Here, we demonstrate that the cytotoxicity of Ag+ cations is circumvented, thanks to the ability of Ag+ cations to kill Escherichia coli (E. coli) much faster than normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs). This phenomenon was investigated in the case of two silver nitrate-loaded sol-gel coatings: one with 0.5 w/w% Ag+ cations and the second with 2.5 w/w%. The maximal amount of released Ag+ ions over time (0.25 mg/L) was ten times lower than the minimal inhibition (MIC) and minimal bactericidal (MBC) concentrations (respectively, 2.5 and 16 mg/L) for E. coli and twice lower to the minimal cytotoxic concentration (0.5 mg/L) observed in NHDFs. E. coli were killed 8-18 times, respectively, faster than NHDFs by silver-loaded sol-gel coatings. This original approach, based on the kinetic control of the biological activity of Ag+ cations instead of a concentration effect, ensures the bactericidal protection while maintaining the biocompatibility of the Ag+ cation-functionalized sol-gels. This opens promising applications of silver-loaded sol-gel coatings for biomedical tools in short-term or indirect contacts with the skin.

Toward conformational identification of molecules in 2D and 3D self-assemblies on surfaces.

The design of supramolecular networks based on organic molecules deposited on surfaces, is highly attractive for various applications. One of the remaining challenges is the expansion of monolayers to well-ordered multilayers in order to enhance the functionality and complexity of self-assemblies. In this study, we present an assessment of molecular conformation from 2D to 3D supramolecular networks adsorbed onto a HOPG surface under ambient conditions utilizing a combination of scanning probe microscopies and atomic force microscopy- infrared (AFM-IR). We have observed that the infrared (IR) spectra of the designed molecules vary from layer to layer due to the modifications in the dihedral angle between the C=O group and the neighboring phenyl ring, especially in the case of a 3D supramolecular network consisting of multiple layers of molecules.

[2+2] Cyclo-Addition Reactions for Efficient Polymerization on a HOPG Surface at Ambient Conditions.

Polymers obtained by on-surface chemistry have emerged as a class of promising materials. Here, we propose a new strategy to obtain self-assembled 1D polymers by using photochemical [2+2] cyclo-addition or by using a mild thermal annealing. All nanostructures are fully characterized by using scanning tunneling microscopy at ambient conditions on a graphite surface. We demonstrated that nature of the stimulus strongly alters the overall quality of the resulting polymers in terms of length and number of defects. This new way is an efficient method to elaborate on-surface self-assembled 1D polymers.

Collective radical oligomerisation induced by an STM tip on a silicon surface.

Over the past decade, on-surface fabrication of organic nanostructures has been widely investigated for the development of molecular electronic components, catalysts, and new materials. Here, we introduce a new strategy to obtain alkyl oligomers in a controlled manner using on-surface radical oligomerisations that are triggered by electrons between the tip of a scanning tunnelling microscope and the Si(111)√3 ×√3 R30°-B surface. This electron transfer event only occurs when the bias voltage is below -4.5 V and allows access to reactive radical species under exceptionally mild conditions. This transfer can effectively 'switch on' a sequence leading to the formation of oligomers of defined size distribution thanks to the on-surface confinement of the reactive species. Our approach enables new ways to initiate and control radical oligomerisations with tunnelling electrons, leading to molecularly precise nanofabrication.

On-Surface Synthesis of Ligands to Elaborate Coordination Polymers on an Au(111) Surface.

On-surface metal-organic polymers have emerged as a class of promising 2D materials. Here, we propose a new strategy to obtain coordination polymers by transforming supramolecular networks into coordination polymers by surface-assisted cyclo-dehydrogenation of organic building blocks. All nanostructures are fully characterized by using scanning tunneling microscopy under ultra-high vacuum on a gold surface. We demonstrated that the balance between molecule-molecule interaction and molecule-substrate interaction can be drastically modified by a strong modification of the geometry of the molecules thanks to a thermal annealing. This new way is an efficient method to elaborate on-surface coordination polymers.

Unravelling the growth mechanism of (3,1) graphene nanoribbons on a Cu(111) surface.

The growth of graphene nanoribbons has been widely investigated on metal surfaces in an ultrahigh vacuum. Here, we re-investigate the growth of graphene nanoribbons obtained by thermal annealing of 9,9'-bianthryl derivatives on a Cu(111) surface by using scanning tunnelling microscopy. On the basis of our results, we propose to complete the reaction mechanism commonly accepted in the literature by adding an intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer from the 2,2'-positions to the 10,10'-positions as a key-step in the formation of (3,1)-graphene nanoribbons on a Cu(111) surface.

Energy funnelling within multichromophore architectures monitored with subnanometre resolution.

The funnelling of energy within multichromophoric assemblies is at the heart of the efficient conversion of solar energy by plants. The detailed mechanisms of this process are still actively debated as they rely on complex interactions between a large number of chromophores and their environment. Here we used luminescence induced by scanning tunnelling microscopy to probe model multichromophoric structures assembled on a surface. Mimicking strategies developed by photosynthetic systems, individual molecules were used as ancillary, passive or blocking elements to promote and direct resonant energy transfer between distant donor and acceptor units. As it relies on organic chromophores as the elementary components, this approach constitutes a powerful model to address fundamental physical processes at play in natural light-harvesting complexes.

Reversible single molecular switch operating at 300 K on a surface.

A single 4-pyridylazobenzene molecule is observed at room temperature on a Si(111)-B surface by using scanning tunnel microscopy. The reversible conformational switching of this molecule is induced by tunneling electrons and observed at room temperature. This process is based on an intramolecular rotation of a single phenyl group without isomerization of the N=N double bond.

Reversible photoswitching of azobenzene-based monolayers physisorbed on a mica surface.

The formation of compact and large-scale self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) adsorbed on a mica surface has been achieved by insertion of alkyl chains on azobenzene derivatives, leading to strong intermolecular van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding. The reversible photoswitching of monolayers was investigated by monitoring the variation of the thickness of the SAMs during the cis-trans isomerization of the azobenzene cores with an atomic force microscope (AFM). The absence of covalent bonds between molecules and substrate induces a molecular diffusion which leads to the complete isomerization of the molecules constituting the SAMs.

Large-extended 2D supramolecular network of dipoles with parallel arrangement on a Si(111)-B surface.

We have investigated the self-assembly of a strong dipolar molecule (LDipCC) on the semiconducting Si(111)-B surface with scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), density functional theory (DFT) calculations and STM simulations. Although the formation of an extended two-dimensional network was clearly revealed by STM under ultra-high vacuum, the assignment of a specific STM signature to the different terminal groups from the LDipCC molecular unit required a complete analysis by numerical simulations. The overall observed assembly is explained in terms of STM contrasts associated with the molecular structure of LDipCC and the molecule-surface interactions. To distinguish the relative arrangement of the dipolar molecules within the assembly, a rational combination of experimental results and electronic structure calculations allows us to identify a single adsorbed LDipCC phase in which the molecular dipoles are homogeneously arranged into a parallel fashion on the Si(111)-B surface.