Structure-based design, synthesis, and biological characterization of indolylarylsulfone derivatives as novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 inhibitors with potent antiviral activities and favorable drug-like profiles.

In the current antiretroviral landscape, continuous efforts are still needed to search for novel chemotypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) inhibitors with improved drug resistance profiles and favorable drug-like properties. Herein, we report the design, synthesis, biological characterization, and druggability evaluation of a class of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Guided by the available crystallographic information, a series of novel indolylarylsulfone derivatives were rationally discovered via the substituent decorating strategy to fully explore the chemical space of the entrance channel. Among them, compound 11h bearing the cyano-substituted benzyl moiety proved to be the most effective inhibitor against HIV-1 wild-type and mutant strains (EC50 = 0.0039-0.338 µM), being far more potent than or comparable to etravirine and doravirine. Besides, 11h did not exhibit cytotoxicity at the maximum test concentration. Meanwhile, the binding target of 11h was further confirmed to be reverse transcriptase (IC50 = 0.055 µM). Preliminary structure-activity relationship were discussed to guide further optimization work. Molecular docking and dynamics simulation studies were investigated in detail to rationalize the biological evaluation results. Further drug-likeness assessment indicated that 11h possessed excellent physicochemical properties. Moreover, no apparent hERG blockade liability and cytochrome P450 inhibition were observed for 11h. Notably, 11h was characterized by favorable in vitro metabolic stability with moderate clearance rates and long half-lives in human plasma and liver microsomes. Overall, 11h holds great promise as an ideal Anti-HIV-1 lead compound due to its potent antiviral efficacy, low toxicity, and favorable drug-like profiles.

Anti-HIV Macrocyclic Daphnane Orthoesters with an Unusual Macrocyclic Ring from Edgeworthia chrysantha.

Edgeworthianins A-E (1-5) were isolated from Edgeworthia chrysantha as a class of macrocyclic daphnane orthoesters with an unusual macrocyclic ring formed from a C14 aliphatic chain. Their structures were elucidated by extensive physicochemical and spectroscopic analyses. Compounds 2, 4, and 5 exhibited potent anti-HIV activity against HIV-1 infection of MT4 cells with EC50 values of 29.3, 8.4, and 2.9 nM, respectively. These compounds broaden the findings of the structure-activity relationship of macrocyclic daphnane orthoesters for further anti-HIV drug development.

Daphnepedunins A-F, Anti-HIV Macrocyclic Daphnane Orthoester Diterpenoids from Daphne pedunculata.

From the whole plant of Daphne pedunculata, 12 macrocyclic daphnane diterpenoids, including six new compounds, daphnepedunins A-F (1-4, 9, and 10), were isolated. Their structures were elucidated by physiochemical and spectroscopic data analysis, the modified Mosher's method, and X-ray crystallography. The isolated compounds were evaluated for anti-HIV activity against HIV-1 infection in MT4 cells and showed significant anti-HIV activity with IC50 values of 36.3-994 nM. A consideration of the anti-HIV activity of these compounds provided further insight into the structure-activity relationships of macrocyclic daphnane diterpenoids.

Tigliane-Type Diterpene Esters from the Fruits of Shirakiopsis indica and Their Anti-HIV Activity.

Four new diterpene esters, shirakindicans A-D (1-4), along with eight related known diterpene esters (5-12), were isolated from the fruits of the Bangladeshi medicinal plant Shirakiopsis indica. The structures of 1-4 were elucidated by spectroscopic data analysis and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. Shirakindican A (1) was assigned as a tigliane-type diterpene ester possessing an unusual 6ß-hydroxy-1,7-dien-3-one structure, while shirakindican B (2) exhibits a tiglia-1,5-dien-3,7-dione structure. The anti-HIV activities of the isolated diterpene esters were evaluated and showed significant activities for sapintoxins A (5) and D (11), with EC50 values of 0.0074 and 0.044 µM, respectively, and TI values of 1 100 and 5 290. Sapatoxin A (12) also exhibited anti-HIV activity with an EC50 value of 0.13 µM and a TI value of 161.

Anti-HIV Tigliane-Type Diterpenoids from the Aerial Parts of Wikstroemia lichiangensis.

Tigliane-type diterpenoids have attracted much attention in drug discovery since they have been reported to exhibit remarkable biological effects, such as tumor-promoting, antineoplastic, and anti-HIV activities. In continuing our efforts to discover novel biologically important diterpenoids from Wikstroemia species, Wikstroemia lichiangensis was investigated phytochemically for the first time. As a result, four new (1-4) and one known (5) tigliane-type diterpenoid were isolated, and their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic data analysis. Tiglianes (1-5) showed potent anti-HIV activity against HIV-1 infection of MT4 lymphocytes with IC50 values of 1.1-65.4 nM.

Iridoids and sesquiterpenoids from Valeriana jatamansi and their anti-influenza virus activities.

Twenty-one new iridoids, jatamansidoids A-U (1-12, 21-26, 32, 35 and 36), two new natural ones, jatamansidoids V (37) and W (38), eighteen known ones (13-20, 27-31, 33 and 34), together with three patchoulol-type sesquiterpenoids (39-41), were isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Valeriana jatamansi. Structurally, compounds 1-7 were the first examples of iridoids from V. jatamansi with unique α, ß, γ, δ-unsaturated aldehyde fragment between C-11, C-4, C-5, C-9 and C-8; compound 8 was an unprecedented iridoid derivative with a methyl group (Me-10) at C-1, rather than C-8, and its plausible biogenetic pathway was proposed in this paper; compounds 22 and 23 were the first examples of Δ4(5)-iridoids simultaneously replaced by oxygen-containing groups at C-3, C-6 and C-7; compound 24 was the first iridoid with both 6,7- and 1,10-epoxy fragments. The structures and absolute configurations of new compounds were elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic techniques and quantum chemical calculation. Furthermore, compounds 13-15 and 39-41 exhibited potent anti-influenza virus activities with H1N1 and H3N2 strains, with IC50 values of 0.21-1.48 µM.

Quinolizidines as Novel SARS-CoV-2 Entry Inhibitors.

COVID-19, caused by the highly transmissible severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has rapidly spread and become a pandemic since its outbreak in 2019. We have previously discovered that aloperine is a new privileged scaffold that can be modified to become a specific antiviral compound with markedly improved potency against different viruses, such as the influenza virus. In this study, we have identified a collection of aloperine derivatives that can inhibit the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into host cells. Compound 5 is the most potent tested aloperine derivative that inhibited the entry of SARS-CoV-2 (D614G variant) spike protein-pseudotyped virus with an IC50 of 0.5 µM. The compound was also active against several other SARS-CoV-2 variants including Delta and Omicron. Results of a confocal microscopy study suggest that compound 5 inhibited the viral entry before fusion to the cell or endosomal membrane. The results are consistent with the notion that aloperine is a privileged scaffold that can be used to develop potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors.

New phorbol ester derivatives as potent anti-HIV agents.

Tigliane esters show many biological activities, including anti-HIV-1 activity. Our aim in this study was to establish structure-anti-HIV activity relationships for four series of tigliane-type diterpenoids. We synthesized and evaluated 29 new phorbol ester derivatives for anti-HIV activity and for cytotoxicity against human tumor cell lines. Among them, three derivatives, two phorbol-13-monoesters (5d and 5e) and a phorbol-12,13-diester (6a), showed significant anti-HIV activity. We found that better anti-HIV activity was often associated with a shorter acyl ester at C-13. Particularly, compounds with a phenyl ring in the ester side chain exhibited excellent anti-HIV activity and had good safety indexes. Due to its significant anti-HIV potency with a high selectivity index, phorbol-12,13-dicinnamoate (6a) was chosen as the potential candidate for further preclinical trials.

Design, synthesis, and antiviral activity of phenylalanine derivatives as HIV-1 capsid inhibitors.

The HIV-1 Capsid (CA) is considered as a promising target for the development of potent antiviral drugs, due to its multiple roles during the viral life cycle. Herein, we report the design, synthesis, and antiviral activity evaluation of series of novel phenylalanine derivatives as HIV-1 CA protein inhibitors. Among them, 4-methoxy-N-methylaniline substituted phenylalanine (II-13c) and indolin-5-amine substituted phenylalanine (V-25i) displayed exceptional anti-HIV-1 activity with the EC50 value of 5.14 and 2.57 µM respectively, which is slightly weaker than that of lead compound PF-74 (EC50 = 0.42 µM). Besides, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) binding assay demonstrated II-13c and V-25i prefer to combine with CA hexamer rather than monomer, which is similar to PF-74. Subsequently, molecular dynamics simulation (MD) revealed potential interactions between representative compounds with HIV-1 CA hexamer. Overall, this work laid a solid foundation for further structural optimization to discover novel promising HIV-1 CA inhibitors.

LC-MS Identification, Isolation, and Structural Elucidation of Anti-HIV Tigliane Diterpenoids from Wikstroemia lamatsoensis.

Structurally diverse tigliane diterpenoids have drawn significant research interest for drug discovery over many decades. Using LC-MS-guided fractionation and separation, the first phytochemical investigation on Wikstroemia lamatsoensis led to the isolation of eight tiglianes (1-8), including two new compounds, wikstrocin D (1) and wikstrocin E (2). The new structures were elucidated based on extensive physicochemical and spectroscopic analyses. The characteristic ESIMS/MS fragmentations of tiglianes 1-8 were also summarized. Among the isolated tiglianes, three compounds (8, 5, and 7) showed the most potent anti-HIV activity, with IC50 values of 0.18, 3.8, and 12.8 nM, respectively.

Discovery of potential dual-target prodrugs of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and nucleocapsid protein 7.

In the present work, we described the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a novel series of potential dual-target prodrugs targeting the HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) and nucleocapsid protein 7 (NCp7) simultaneously. Among them, the most effective compound 7c was found to inhibit HIV-1 wild-type (WT) strain at double-digit nanomolar concentration (EC50 = 42 nM) in MT-4 cells, and sub-micromole (EC50 = 0.308 µM) to inhibit HIV-1 NL4-3 strain in TZM-bl cells. This is a significant improvement over the parent drug MT. In addition, it showed moderate inhibitory potency (EC50 = 1.329 µM) against the HIV-1 K103N/Y181C double mutant strain (MT-4 cells). The metabolic stability in human plasma of compound 7c indicated that it can release the active forms of the parent drugs MT and AZT in a linear time-independent manner and turn out to be a potential prodrug.

Paliasanines A-E, 3,4-Methylenedioxyquinoline Alkaloids Fused with a Phenyl-14-oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane Unit from Melochia umbellata var. deglabrata.

Five new quinoline alkaloids, paliasanines A-E (1-5), and 17 known compounds (6-22) were isolated from a methanol extract of Melochia umbellata var. deglabrata leaves. Their chemical structures were elucidated by analysis of HRMS and 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data. Compounds 1-5 are the first naturally occurring 3,4-methylenedioxyquinolines incorporating an oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane unit. Compounds 6 and 7 displayed selective cytotoxicity (IC50 5.9-8.4 µM) against A549 and MCF-7 cell lines, while compounds 1-5 were not active. Compounds 1-3 did not exhibit an anti-HIV effect in MT4 cells, although the related quinolone derivative waltherione A exhibited significant activity. These preliminary results indicate that the 3-methoxy-4-quinolone skeleton might be preferred for both antiproliferative and anti-HIV activities.

Isolation, Structural Elucidation, and Anti-HIV Activity of Daphnane Diterpenoids from Daphne odora.

Five new [daphneodorins D-H (1, 5, and 10-12)] and seven known daphnane diterpenoids (2-4 and 6-9) were isolated from Daphne odora. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by extensive physicochemical and spectroscopic analysis. The isolated compounds were evaluated for their anti-HIV activity against HIV-1 infection of MT4 cells. Nine daphnane diterpenoid orthoesters (1-9) showed potent anti-HIV activity with EC50 values of 1.5-7.7 nM.

Rapid Recognition and Targeted Isolation of Anti-HIV Daphnane Diterpenes from Daphne genkwa Guided by UPLC-MSn.

Daphnane diterpenes with a 5/7/6-tricyclic ring system exhibit potent anti-HIV activity but are found in low abundance as plant natural products. In this study, an effective approach based on mass spectrometric fragmentation pathways was conducted to specifically recognize and isolate anti-HIV compounds of this type from Daphne genkwa. Briefly, the fragmentation pathways of reference analogues were elucidated based on characteristic ion fragments of m/z 323 → 295 → 267 or m/z 253 → 238 → 197 by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-IT-MSn) and then applied to the differentiations of substances with or without an oxygenated group at C-12. Twenty-seven daphnane diterpenes were successfully recognized from a petroleum ether extract of D. genkwa, including some potential new compounds and isomers that could not be identified accurately only from the ion fragments. Further separation of these target compounds using high-speed countercurrent chromatography (HSCCC) and preparative HPLC led to the isolation of three new (11, 25, and 27) and 14 known compounds, whose structures were identified and confirmed based on MS, NMR, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectroscopy. The isolates exhibited anti-HIV activities at nanomolar concentrations. The results demonstrated that this strategy is feasible and reliable to rapidly recognize and isolate daphnane diterpenes from D. genkwa.

Anti-HIV Tigliane Diterpenoids from Wikstroemia scytophylla.

During a chemical investigation of Wikstroemia scytophylla, three new [wikstrocins A-C (1-3)] and three known tigliane diterpenoids (4-6) were isolated. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated from extensive physiochemical and spectroscopic analysis. The correlations between the ECD Cotton effects and B ring structures of tiglianes were also evaluated. The isolated compounds were assessed for their anti-HIV activity against HIV-1 infection of MT4 cells, and two compounds (4 and 6) showed potent anti-HIV activity with IC50 values of 3.8 and 12.8 nM, respectively.

Potent Anti-HIV Ingenane Diterpenoids from Euphorbia ebracteolata.

Two new (1 and 2) and 14 known (3-16) ingenane diterpenoids were isolated from the roots of Euphorbia ebracteolata by bioassay-guided fractionation together with UPLC-MS n analysis. The absolute configurations of the new diterpenoids were established from electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data and ECD calculations. Except for ingenol (16), the ingenane diterpenoids with long aliphatic chain substituents (1-15) exhibited potent activities against HIV-1, with IC50 values of 0.7 to 9.7 nM and selectivity index values of 96.2 to 20 263. From the results, it was concluded that long aliphatic chain substituents are required for the enhanced anti-HIV activity of ingenane diterpenoids.

Carbazole Alkaloids from Clausena anisum-olens: Isolation, Characterization, and Anti-HIV Evaluation.

Two new carbazole alkaloids (1,2) and six known carbazole alkaloids (3-8) were isolated from Clausena anisum-olens. Their structures were elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic analysis. All isolated compounds (1-8) were evaluated for their anti-HIV effects on virus replication in MT-4 lymphocytes infected by HIV-1NL4-3 Nanoluc-sec virus, and new carbazole alkaloid 1 exhibited anti-HIV activity with an EC50 value of 2.4 µg/mL and SI of 7.1.

Kleinhospitine E and Cycloartane Triterpenoids from Kleinhovia hospita.

A novel cycloartane triterpenoid alkaloid, kleinhospitine E (1), six new cycloartane triterpenoids (2-7), three known cycloartane triterpenoids (8-10), and taraxerone (11) were isolated from a methanol extract of Kleinhovia hospita. Their structures were elucidated by 1D- and 2D-NMR spectroscopy as well as HRMS analysis. The absolute configurations of all isolated compounds were determined from their ECD spectra by comparison with theoretical values. Kleinhospitine E (1) is the first cycloartane alkaloid possessing an unusual γ-lactam with an oxopropylidene side chain. Compounds 2, 3, and 6 were assigned as cycloartane triterpenoids with a 9α,10α-cyclopropyl ring, which is found rarely among naturally occurring compounds, while 4 and 5 were established as isomers of compound 3 containing a 21,23-diacetal side chain. Biological evaluation revealed that compounds 4 and 9 exhibited more potent antiproliferative activities against a multidrug-resistant tumor cell line compared with its parent chemosensitive cell line. Furthermore, compound 6 exhibited submicromolar anti-HIV activity.

Terpenes from Euphorbia antiquorum and Their in Vitro Anti-HIV Activity.

Three new compounds (1 - 3), including two euphane type triterpenes, 24,24-dimethoxy-25,26,27-trinoreuphan-3ß-ol (1) and (24S)-24-hydroperoxyeupha-8,25-dien-3ß-ol (2), and an ent-atisine diterpene, ent-atisane-3α,16α,17-triol (3), were isolated from an acetone extract of the stems of Euphorbia antiquorum, together with eight known diterpenes (4 - 11). The structures of compounds (1 - 11) were elucidated using NMR and MS spectroscopic methods. Compound 7 showed moderate activity against HIV-1 replication in vitro (EC50 = 1.38 µm).

Drug-like property-driven optimization of 4-substituted 1,5-diarylanilines as potent HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors against rilpivirine-resistant mutant virus.

On the basis of our prior structure-activity relationship (SAR) results, our current lead optimization of 1,5-diarylanilines (DAANs) focused on the 4-substituent (R1) on the central phenyl ring as a modifiable position related simultaneously to improved drug resistance profiles and drug-like properties. Newly synthesized p-cyanovinyl-DAANs (8a-8g) with different R1 side chains plus prior active p-cyanoethyl-DAANs (4a-4c) were evaluated not only for anti-HIV potency against both wild-type HIV virus and rilpivirine-resistant (E138K, E138K+M184I) viral replication, but also for multiple drug-like properties, including aqueous solubility, lipophilicity, and metabolic stability in human liver microsomes and human plasma. This study revealed that both ester and amide R1 substituents led to low nanomolar anti-HIV potency against wild-type and rilpivirine-resistant viral strains (E138K-resistance fold changes<3). The N-substituted amide-R1 side chains were superior to ester-R1 likely due to improved aqueous solubility, lipophilicity, and higher metabolic stability in vitro. Thus, three amide-DAANs 8e, 4a, and 4b were identified with high potency against wild-type and rilpivirine-resistant viral strains and multiple desirable drug-like properties.