Enhanced Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation versus Treatment as Usual for ICD-11 Complex PTSD: A Pilot Randomised Controlled Trial (The RESTORE Trial).

INTRODUCTION: Complex PTSD (CPTSD) is a relatively new condition in ICD-11. This pilot randomised controlled trial aimed to compare a four-module intervention developed to target all symptoms of ICD-11 CPTSD, namely Enhanced Skills in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (ESTAIR) with treatment as usual (TAU). The purpose of the study was to assess feasibility, safety, acceptability, and preliminary outcomes at the end of treatment and 3-month follow-up. METHODS: A total of N = 56 eligible veterans with CPTSD were randomised to either ESTAIR (n = 28) or TAU (n = 28). Linear mixed models were conducted to assess CPTSD severity, the primary outcome, as measured by the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ). RESULTS: Treatment dropout in ESTAIR and TAU was low and equivalent (18% vs. 11%; χ2 (1) = 1.19, p = 0.275), and study retention was high, supporting the feasibility of the study. No serious adverse effects and very few adverse effects occurred, none of which were deemed related to the study. ESTAIR provided significantly greater reduction in CPTSD severity across time for ITQ PTSD (p < 0.001) and DSO (p < 0.001) symptoms. CPTSD pre-to-post effect sizes for ESTAIR were large (PTSD d = 1.78; DSO d = 2.00). Remission of probable CPTSD diagnosis at post-treatment was substantially greater in ESTAIR compared to TAU with only 13.6% versus 84% (p < 0.001) retaining the diagnosis. CONCLUSION: A trial of ESTAIR versus TAU for the treatment of ICD-11 CPTSD indicates the potential efficacy of ESTAIR as well as its feasibility, safety, and acceptability.

Brief Peer-Supported webSTAIR for Trauma-Exposed Veterans in the Community: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Peer-supported mobile health (mhealth) programs hold the promise of providing a low-burden approach to increasing access to care and improving mental health. While peer support has been shown to improve engagement into care, there is limited investigation about the impact of peers on symptom outcome. Trauma-exposed populations frequently suffer from co-occurring posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms as well as difficulties in day-to-day functioning. This study evaluated the potential benefits of a peer-supported transdiagnostic mhealth program on symptom outcomes and functioning. OBJECTIVE: This randomized controlled trial tested the effectiveness of Brief Peer-Supported (BPS) webSTAIR, a 6-module transdiagnostic online program derived from Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR) compared to waitlist control (WL) in a community sample of Veterans who screened positive for either post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and/or depression. METHODS: A total of 178 eligible Veterans were enrolled in the study using a 2:1 randomization scheme with 117 assigned to BPS webSTAIR and 61 assigned to WL. PTSD and depressive symptoms as well as emotion regulation, and psychosocial functioning were assessed via phone at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 8-week follow-up. Mixed-effects models were used to assess change in outcome measures across timepoints and evaluate the impact of module completion on outcomes. Exploratory analyses were conducted to determine whether the type and number of peer interactions influenced outcomes. RESULTS: Significant interaction effects were observed for all outcomes such that participants randomized to BPS webSTAIR reported significantly greater improvement at posttreatment compared to WL with moderate effect sizes for PTSD (PCL-5 d = -0.48) depression (PHQ- 8 d = -0.64), emotion regulation (DERS-16 d = 0.61) and functional impairment (WSAS d = 0.61); gains were maintained at 8-week follow-up. Those who completed more modules reported greater improvement on all outcomes. An initial cohort of participants who were required to engage with a peer coach to progress through the modules interacted more frequently with peers but completed fewer modules compared to a later cohort for whom peer engagement was optional. CONCLUSIONS: BPS webSTAIR was effective in improving PTSD and depression symptoms, emotion regulation, and psychosocial functioning in community Veterans. Peer-supported transdiagnostic mhealth programs may be a particularly efficient, effective, and low-burden approach to improving mental health among trauma-exposed populations. Investigation of peer-supported programs among other populations is necessary to evaluate the generalizability of the findings. Analyses comparing peer support that was required versus optional indicated that some veterans may not need or want peer support. Future research should evaluate how best to deliver peer support and for whom it is most beneficial. If successful, peer-supported tech programs may increase the VA workforce as well as improve veteran mental health services and outcomes. CLINICALTRIAL: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04286165.

STAIR Narrative Therapy for complex posttraumatic stress disorder: Treating sexual and gender minority trauma.

BACKGROUND: Complex PTSD is a recent addition to the ICD-11 diagnostic system. AIMS: This case study describes the delivery of Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation and Narrative Therapy (SNT), a flexible, multi-component therapy that addresses the symptoms of complex posttraumatic stress disorder. SNT balances interventions that address current-day stressors with those that reappraise the meaning of traumatic past events. This paper outlines 16 sessions of SNT with a 55-year-old gay man. DISCUSSION: The case analysis describes the ways in which SNT is relevant and effective in addressing the client's mulitple concerns. The skills work helped the client effectively  manage ongoing minority stress, discrimination, and micro-aggressions related to his identity as a gay man. Review and re-appraisal of his traumatic memories, which focused on the sudden death of his partner from AIDS along with discussion of events from his childhood that shaped his reactions to this loss, allowed the client to create a more integrated sense of self as well as a more compassionate view of himself. Implications regarding the relevance of SNT for sexual and gender minority individuals are discussed.

Is Dissociation a Fundamental Component of ICD-11 Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?

ICD-11 Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) is a disorder of six symptom clusters including reexperiencing, avoidance, sense of threat, affective dysregulation, negative self-concept, and disturbed relationships. Unlike earlier descriptions of complex PTSD, ICD-11 CPTSD does not list dissociation as a unique symptom cluster. We tested whether the ICD-11 CPTSD symptoms can exist independently of dissociation in a nationally representative sample of adults (N = 1,020) who completed self-report measures. Latent class analysis was used to identify unique subsets of people with distinctive symptom profiles. The best fitting model contained four classes including a "low symptoms" class (48.9%), a "PTSD" class (14.7%), a "CPTSD" class (26.5%), and a "CPTSD + Dissociation" class (10.0%). These classes were related to specific adverse childhood experiences, notably experiences of emotional and physical neglect. The "PTSD," "CPTSD," and "CPTSD + Dissociation" classes were associated with a host of poor health outcomes, however, the "CPTSD + Dissociation" class had the poorest mental health and highest levels of functional impairment. Findings suggest that ICD-11 CPTSD symptoms can occur without corresponding dissociative experiences, however, when CPTSD symptoms and dissociative experiences occur together, health outcomes appear to be more severe.

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder.

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (complex PTSD) is a severe mental disorder that emerges in response to traumatic life events. Complex PTSD is characterised by three core post-traumatic symptom clusters, along with chronic and pervasive disturbances in emotion regulation, identity, and relationships. Complex PTSD has been adopted as a new diagnosis in the ICD-11. Individuals with complex PTSD typically have sustained or multiple exposures to trauma, such as childhood abuse and domestic or community violence. The disorder has a 1-8% population prevalence and up to 50% prevalence in mental health facilities. Progress in diagnostics, assessment, and differentiation from post-traumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder is reported, along with assessment and treatment of children and adolescents. Studies recommend multicomponent therapies starting with a focus on safety, psychoeducation, and patient-provider collaboration, and treatment components that include self-regulatory strategies and trauma-focused interventions.

A Randomized Clinical Trial of Clinician-Supported PTSD Coach in VA Primary Care Patients.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is common in primary care patients; however, evidence-based treatments are typically only available in specialty mental healthcare settings and often not accessed. OBJECTIVE: To test the effectiveness of a brief primary care-based treatment, Clinician-Supported PTSD Coach (CS PTSD Coach) was compared with Primary Care Mental Health Integration-Treatment as Usual (PCMHI-TAU) in (1) reducing PTSD severity, (2) engaging veterans in specialty mental health care, and (3) patient satisfaction with care. DESIGN: Multi-site randomized pragmatic clinical trial. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 234 veterans with PTSD symptoms who were not currently accessing PTSD treatment. INTERVENTION: CS PTSD Coach was designed to be implemented in Veterans Affairs PCMHI and combines mental health clinician support with the "PTSD Coach" mobile app. Four 30-min sessions encourage daily use of symptom management strategies. MAIN MEASURES: PTSD severity was measured by clinician-rated interviews pre- and post-treatment (8 weeks). Self-report measures assessed PTSD, depression, and quality of life at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 16- and 24-week follow-ups, and patient satisfaction at post-treatment. Mental healthcare utilization was extracted from medical records. KEY RESULTS: Clinician-rated PTSD severity did not differ by condition at post-treatment. CS PTSD Coach participants improved more on patient-reported PTSD severity at post-treatment than TAU participants (D = .28, p = .021). Coach participants who continued to have problematic PTSD symptoms at post-treatment were not more likely to engage in 2 sessions of specialty mental health treatment than TAU participants. Coach participants engaged in 74% more sessions in the intervention and reported higher treatment satisfaction than TAU participants (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: A structured 4-session intervention designed to align with patient preferences for care resulted in more patient-reported PTSD symptom relief, greater utilization of mental health treatment, and overall treatment satisfaction than TAU, but not more clinician-rated PTSD symptom relief or engagement in specialty mental health.

Distinguishing between ICD-11 complex post-traumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder: clinical guide and recommendations for future research.

Although complex post-traumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder are distinct disorders, there is confusion in clinical practice regarding the similarities between the diagnostic profiles of these conditions. We summarise the differences in the diagnostic criteria that are clinically informative and we illustrate these with case studies to enable diagnostic accuracy in clinical practice.

War exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and complex posttraumatic stress disorder among parents living in Ukraine during the Russian war.

BACKGROUND: High rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been documented in war-affected populations. The prevalence of Complex PTSD (CPTSD) has never been assessed in an active war zone. Here, we provide initial data on war-related experiences, and prevalence rates of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD in a large sample of adults in Ukraine during the Russian war. We also examined how war-related stressors, PTSD, and CPTSD were associated with age, sex, and living location in Ukraine. METHOD: Self-report data were gathered from a nationwide sample of 2004 adult parents of children under 18 from the general population of Ukraine approximately 6 months after Russia's invasion. RESULTS: All participants were exposed to at least one war-related stressor, and the mean number of exposures was 9.07 (range = 1-26). Additionally, 25.9% (95% CI = 23.9%, 27.8%) met diagnostic requirements for PTSD and 14.6% (95% CI = 12.9%, 16.0%) met requirements for CPTSD. There was evidence of a strong dose-response relationship between war-related stressors and meeting criteria for PTSD and CPTSD. Participants who had the highest exposure to war-related stressors were significantly more likely to meet the requirements for PTSD (OR = 4.20; 95% CI = 2.96-5.95) and CPTSD (OR = 8.12; 95% CI = 5.11-12.91) compared to the least exposed. CONCLUSIONS: Humanitarian responses to the mental health needs of the Ukrainian population will need to take account of posttraumatic stress reactions. Education in diagnosing and treating PTSD/CPTSD, especially in the situation of a significant lack of human resources and continuing displacement of the population, is necessary.

Investigating the latent structure of the International Trauma Questionnaire to assess ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD in an adult civilian sample during the Ukraine war.

The symptom structure of ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) and the validity of the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ) are yet to be tested among civilians in an active war zone. The present investigation examined the factor structure of the ITQ, the internal consistency of observed scores, and their associations with demographic characteristics and war-related experiences using a nationwide sample of 2,004 adults from the general population of Ukraine approximately 6 months after the full-scale Russian invasion in 2022. Overall, rates of endorsement across all symptom clusters were high. The mean total number of war-related stressors reported was 9.07 (SD = 4.35, range: 1-26). Internal reliability was good for all six ITQ subscales, Cronbach's αs = .73-.88, and the correlated six-factor model was found to provide the best representation of the latent structure of the ITQ in the present sample based on fit indices. There was evidence of a dose-response relationship, with increasing scores on all symptom clusters associated with higher total reported war-related stressors.

Coaching with Internet-Based Mental Health Program: Patient and Coach Experiences.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has laid bare the need for mental health treatment and the shortage of available providers. Internet-based, asynchronous mental health programs that incorporate coaching with a licensed provider address this widespread challenge. This study provides an in-depth exploration of both the patient and provider experience in webSTAIR, a coached, internet-based psychoeducational program, where coaching took place over video-telehealth. We focus on how patients and licensed mental health providers understood their coaching relationship in an internet-based mental health program. Materials and Methods: We interviewed a purposive sample of 60 patients who completed the coached, internet-based program and all 9 providers who provided coaching from 2017 to 2020. The project team and interviewers took notes during interviews. Patient interviews were studied using content and matrix analysis. Coach interviews were studied using thematic analysis. Results: Interviews across patients and coaches reveal the continued importance of relationship building and rapport and emphasized the central role of the coach in providing content clarification and application of skills. Discussion: For patients, coaches were critical for understanding and completing the internet-based program. As well, positive relationship with their coach further enhanced their experience in the program. Providers echoed the importance of relationship building and rapport for program success and saw their main role as helping patients to understand content and apply skills.

Prevalence and predictors of ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder and complex PTSD in young people.

OBJECTIVE: The prevalence, construct validity, risk factors and psychopathological correlates associated with ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) as measured by the International Trauma Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ITQ-CA) were assessed in a sample of young people from Northern Ireland. METHOD: Participants were trauma-exposed 11-19-year-olds (N = 507) who participated in the Northern Ireland Youth Wellbeing Prevalence Survey (YWS-NI, 2020). Factor mixture modelling (FMM) was used to test the latent structure of the ITQ-CA. Risk-factors and psychopathological correlates associated with latent class membership, and ICD-11diagnostic status, were also investigated. RESULTS: More participants met the ITQ-CA criteria for CPTSD (3.4%, n = 44) than PTSD (1.5%, n = 19). A second-order FMM comprising a 'partial-PTSD class', a 'CPTSD class', a 'DSO class' and a 'low symptom endorsement class' was the best-fitting model. Younger age and cumulative trauma were risk factors for all trauma classes. Female gender and two or more violent traumas were significant predictors of the 'PTSD' and 'CPTSD' classes, while single sexual trauma was a significant predictor of the 'DSO' and 'CPTSD' classes. Two or more sexual traumas was a unique predictor of 'CPTSD class', while two or more vicarious traumas was a unique predictor of 'DSO class'. The 'CPTSD' class displayed the most notable comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that CPTSD may be more prevalent than PTSD in children and young people. Support for the ICD-11 conceptualisation of CPTSD as representing a unique diagnostic construct was supported using FMM, with findings indicating trauma symptom class-specific risk profiles.

Childhood trauma, attachment orientation, and complex PTSD (CPTSD) symptoms in a clinical sample: Implications for treatment.

Although there has been significant work on the association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and attachment orientation, this is less the case for complex PTSD (CPTSD). The primary aim of this paper was to assess the strength of the association between the four adult attachment styles (i.e., secure, dismissing, preoccupied, and fearful) and severity of CPTSD symptoms (i.e., symptoms of PTSD and disturbances in self-organization [DSO]). We hypothesized that attachment orientation would be more strongly associated with DSO symptoms compared to PTSD symptoms. A trauma exposed clinical sample (N = 331) completed self-report measures of traumatic life events, CPTSD symptoms, and attachment orientation. It was found that secure attachment and fearful attachment were significantly associated with DSO symptoms but not with PTSD symptoms. Dismissing attachment style was significantly associated with PTSD and DSO symptoms. Preoccupied attachment was not significantly associated with CPTSD symptoms. Treatment implications for CPTSD using an attachment framework are discussed.

Distinguishing Among Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Borderline Personality Disorder in a Community Sample of Women.

The diagnosis of complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) was included in the ICD-11 in 2018. Debates are still ongoing in the scientific community regarding the conceptual distinction between CPTSD symptoms and those of comorbid PTSD and borderline personality disorder (BPD). The present study aimed to determine whether (a) patterns of symptoms reported by women in a community sample would reveal a CPTSD profile distinct from PTSD and BPD profiles and (b) the resulting profiles could be compared on measures of cumulative childhood trauma exposure, dissociation, and life satisfaction. Women who reported at least one potentially traumatic experience (N = 438) completed questionnaires assessing PTSD, CPTSD, and BPD symptoms. We performed latent profile analyses testing seven models, with the five-profile model emerging as the most appropriate solution. The profiles were characterized as "high PTSD symptoms" (12.0%), "high CPTSD symptoms" (7.6%), "high BPD symptoms" (9.9%), "high CPTSD and BPD symptoms" (3.8%), and "low symptoms" (66.7%). Group comparisons revealed that the profiles characterized by high CPTSD symptoms, high BPD symptoms, and high CPTSD and BPD symptoms tended to include participants with higher levels of cumulative childhood trauma exposure and symptoms of dissociation and lower ratings of life satisfaction compared to the profiles characterized by high PTSD symptoms and low symptoms, ds = 0.55-1.06. These findings support the distinction between ICD-11 CPTSD symptoms and those of PTSD and BPD, promoting an integrative approach to understanding trauma sequelae, diagnosis, and treatment.

The mental health impact of COVID-19-related stressors among treatment-seeking trauma-exposed veterans.

Trauma-exposed veterans receiving mental health care may have an elevated risk of experiencing COVID-19-related difficulties. Using data from several ongoing clinical trials (N = 458), this study examined exposure to COVID-19-related stressors and their associations with key sociodemographic factors and mental health outcomes. The results showed that exposure to COVID-19-related stressors was common, higher among veterans who were racial/ethnic minorities d = 0.32, and associated with elevated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), r = .288, and depressive symptom severity, r = .246. Women veterans experienced more difficulty accessing social support, d = 0.31, and higher levels of COVID-19-related distress, d = 0.31, than men. Qualitative data were consistent with survey findings and highlighted the broader societal context in veterans' experience of COVID-19-related distress. These findings may inform future research on the impact of the pandemic on veterans, particularly those who are women and members of minoritized racial/ethnic groups, as well as mental health treatment planning for this population.

The Network Structure of ICD-11 Disorders Specifically Associated with Stress: Adjustment Disorder, Prolonged Grief Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

INTRODUCTION: The ICD-11 includes a new grouping for "disorders specifically associated with stress" that contains revised descriptions of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and adjustment disorder (AjD) and new diagnoses in the form of complex PTSD (CPTSD) and prolonged grief disorder (PGD). These disorders are similar in that they each require a life event for the diagnosis; however, they have not yet been assessed together for validity within the same sample. We set out to test the distinctiveness of the four main ICD-11 stress disorders using a network analysis approach. METHODS: A population-based, cross-sectional design. A nationally representative sample of adults from the Republic of Ireland aged 18 years and older (N = 1,020) completed standardized measures of PTSD, CPTSD, AjD, and PGD. A network analysis was conducted at the symptom level. Outcome measures included the International Trauma Questionnaire, the Inventory of Complicated Grief, and the International Adjustment Disorder Questionnaire. RESULTS: Consistent with the taxonomic structure of the ICD-11, our results showed that although the four conditions clustered independently at the disorder level, the specific symptoms of PTSD, CPTSD, PGD, and AjD clustered together very strongly but more strongly than with symptoms of the other disorders. The majority (61%) of the variation in each symptom could be explained by its neighboring symptoms. The strongest transdiagnostically connecting symptom was "startle response." DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: Mental health professionals caring for people who have experienced a range of stressors and traumatic life events can be confident in diagnosing these conditions that have clear diagnostic boundaries. Interventions addressing stress-associated disorders should be based on diagnostic assessment to ensure close fit between symptoms and treatment.

Posttraumatic stress disorder, complex PTSD and subtypes of loneliness among older adults.

OBJECTIVES: Research examining the relationship between loneliness and Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) is scarce, particularly among older adults. CPTSD includes the core symptoms of PTSD along with additional symptoms reflecting "disturbances in self-organisation" (DSO). This study examined the cross-sectional relationships between loneliness (emotional and social loneliness) and CPTSD symptoms (i.e., PTSD and DSO symptoms) in older adults. METHODS: Structural equation modelling was used to examine these relationships in a nationally representative sample of US adults aged 60-70 years (n = 456). RESULTS: Controlling for covariates, emotional loneliness was associated with PTSD (ß = 0.31) and DSO (ß = 0.57) symptoms whereas social loneliness was only associated with DSO symptoms (ß = 0.25). The model explained 35.0% of the variance in PTSD symptoms and 71.3% in DSO symptoms. CONCLUSION: These findings have important implications for treating and understanding PTSD/CPTSD and their correlates among older adults.

Patient experiences and reported effectiveness of a multimodal short-term pilot therapy group for veteran men with military sexual trauma.

OBJECTIVE: Despite recognition of its prevalence and impact, little is known about treatment for veteran men with a history of military sexual trauma (MST). While research suggests that such veterans may suffer from gender-based distress that poses unique treatment challenges, MST-focused treatment draws upon contemporary PTSD best practices that may overlook gender. The current initial pilot study evaluated a multimodal, time-limited men's MST group therapy that integrated exposure- and mindfulness-based, psychoeducational, and psychodynamic group interventions. METHOD: This study examined pre- and posttreatment data from patients who completed group treatment (n = 24). Three-fourths of patients were 60 years or older, over 80% Black, Indigenous, People of Color. Assessment data were collected using the PTSD Checklist (PCL-5), an adaptation of the Recovery Assessment Scale, and open-ended written responses. Paired-samples t tests and effect sizes (Hedge's g) were calculated. Indictive thematic analysis was used for qualitative analysis. RESULTS: Qualitative and quantitative data showed improvements in shame, self-forgiveness, and belonginess. There were significant reductions from pre- to posttreatment in total PCL-5 score (g = -0.69) and all 4 symptom clusters (g = -0.51--0.71), and significant improvements in 8 out of 10 recovery items (g = 0.44-2.46). CONCLUSIONS: More research is needed to assess whether veteran men with a history of MST benefit from treatment that provides multimodal, multitheoretical interventions that address gender-based symptoms in addition to PTSD. The results of this study support future research in a randomized controlled study.

Commentary: The need for research on PTSD in Children and adolescents - a commentary on Elliot et al. (2020).

The recent release of the 11th version of The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11: WHO, 2018) marked a significant departure from the previous similarities between it and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; APA, 2013) in terms of their conceptualization of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The ICD-11 proposed a reduced symptom set for PTSD and a sibling disorder called Complex PTSD. There have been numerous studies that have provided support for the integrity of, and distinction between, PTSD and CPTSD diagnoses in adult samples. Elliot and colleagues (2020) have added to the research literature by providing a valuable examination of the differences between ICD and DSM PTSD/CPTSD in a sample of youth aged 8 to 17 years. This commentary reviews this study and reflects on the need for greater understanding of developmental changes in the presentation of PTSD and Complex PTSD.

Correlation Between Rostral Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex Activation by Trauma-Related Words and Subsequent Response to CBT for PTSD.

OBJECTIVE: Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is an important component of evidence-based treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but the efficacy of treatment varies from individual to individual. It is hypothesized that some of this variability is derived from interindividual differences in the brain's intrinsic response to trauma-related stimuli and in activity of executive functional regions. The authors sought to characterize these differences using functional MRI (fMRI) in patients about to undergo CBT for PTSD. METHODS: Blood-oxygenation-level-dependent signal was measured in 12 individuals with PTSD related to sexual and/or physical trauma while they read words with positive, neutral, and negative content. Some negative words had PTSD-related themes, while others did not. It was hypothesized that PTSD-related words would evoke emotional processes likely to be engaged by the CBT process and would be most likely to activate brain circuitry important for CBT success. RESULTS: A group-level analysis showed that the rostral dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (rdmPFC) was activated to a greater degree in response to PTSD-related words compared with other word types. This activation was strongest among patients with the best CBT responses, particularly in the latter part of the task, when differences between individuals were most pronounced. CONCLUSIONS: The rdmPFC activation observed in this study may reflect the engagement of neural processes involved in introspection and self-reflection. CBT may be more effective for individuals with a greater ability to engage these processes.

Trauma, PTSD, and complex PTSD in the Republic of Ireland: prevalence, service use, comorbidity, and risk factors.

PURPOSE: This study represents the first assessment of the prevalence of trauma exposure, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Complex PTSD (CPTSD), ever conducted in the general population of the Republic of Ireland. Additionally, prevalence of past-year mental health service use, comorbidity with major depression and generalized anxiety, and risk factors associated with PTSD and CPTSD were assessed. METHODS: A nationally representative sample of non-institutionalized Irish adults (N = 1020) completed self-report measures of trauma history, trauma-related psychopathology, mental health service use, and concurrent mental health problems. RESULTS: Lifetime exposure to one or more traumatic events was 82.3%, and 67.8% reported experiencing two or more traumatic events. Males and females significantly differed in their frequency of exposure to eight of 16 traumatic events. The past-month prevalence for PTSD was 5.0% (95% CI 3.7%, 6.3%) and 7.7% (95% CI 6.1%, 9.4%) for CPTSD. Of those who screened positive for PTSD or CPTSD, 48.6% accessed mental health care in the past year. Comorbidity with major depression and generalized anxiety was high, especially among those with CPTSD. Several unique and shared risk factors for PTSD and CPTSD were identified. CONCLUSION: Approximately one-in-eight Irish adults met diagnostic requirements for PTSD or CPTSD, and comorbidity with other disorders was high. History of interpersonal trauma and exposure to multiple types of trauma in different developmental periods were associated with CPTSD. Many individuals did not access mental health care revealing a substantial mental health treatment gap.