Neuroimaging in encephalitis: analysis of imaging findings and interobserver agreement.

AIM: To assess the role of imaging in the early management of encephalitis and the agreement on findings in a well-defined cohort of suspected encephalitis cases enrolled in the Prospective Aetiological Study of Encephalitis conducted by the Health Protection Agency (now incorporated into Public Health England). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighty-five CT examinations from 68 patients and 101 MRI examinations from 80 patients with suspected encephalitis were independently rated by three neuroradiologists blinded to patient and clinical details. The level of agreement on the interpretation of images was measured using the kappa statistic. The sensitivity, specificity, and negative and positive predictive values of CT and MRI for herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) were estimated. RESULTS: The kappa value for interobserver agreement on rating the scans as normal or abnormal was good (0.65) for CT and moderate (0.59) for MRI. Agreement for HSV encephalitis was very good for CT (0.87) and MRI (0.82), but only fair for ADEM (0.32 CT; 0.31 MRI). Similarly, the overall sensitivity of imaging for HSV encephalitis was ∼80% for both CT and MRI, whereas for ADEM it was 0% for CT and 20% for MRI. MRI specificity for HSV encephalitis between 3-10 days after symptom onset was 100%. CONCLUSION: There is a subjective component to scan interpretation that can have important implications for the clinical management of encephalitis cases. Neuroradiologists were good at diagnosing HSV encephalitis; however, agreement was worse for ADEM and other alternative aetiologies. Findings highlight the importance of a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to diagnosing the cause of encephalitis that takes into account individual clinical, microbiological, and radiological features of each patient.

Strengths and limitations of assessing influenza vaccine effectiveness using routinely collected, passive surveillance data in Ontario, Canada, 2007 to 2012: balancing efficiency versus quality.

Prompt evaluation of annual influenza vaccine effectiveness (IVE) is important. IVE is estimated in Ontario using a test-negative design (TND) within a national sentinel surveillance network (SPSN). To explore alternative approaches, we applied the screening method (SM) during five seasons spanning 2007 to 2012 to passive surveillance data to determine whether routinely collected data could provide unbiased IVE estimates. Age-adjusted SM-IVE estimates, excluding 2008/09 pandemic cases and cases with missing immunisation status, were compared with TND-IVE estimates in SPSN participants, adjusted for age, comorbidity, week of illness onset and interval to specimen collection. In four seasons, including the 2009 pandemic, the SM underestimated IVE (22­39% seasonal; 72% pandemic) by 20 to 35% relative to the TND-IVE (58­63% seasonal; 93% pandemic), except for the 2010/11 season when both estimates were low (33% and 30%, respectively). Half of the cases in the routine surveillance data lacked immunisation information; imputing all to be unimmunised better aligned SM-IVE with TND-IVE, instead overestimating in four seasons by 4 to 29%. While the SM approach applied to routine data may offer the advantage of timeliness, ease and efficiency, methodological issues related to completeness of vaccine information and/or case ascertainment may constitute trade-offs in reliability.

Risk factors for sporadic domestically acquired Salmonella serovar Enteritidis infections: a case-control study in Ontario, Canada, 2011.

In Ontario, Canada, the number of Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) cases increased over the years 2005-2010. A population-based case-control study was undertaken from January to August 2011 for the purpose of identifying risk factors for acquiring illness due to SE within Ontario. A total of 199 cases and 241 controls were enrolled. After adjustment for confounders, consuming any poultry meat [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2·24, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·31-3·83], processed chicken (aOR 3·32, 95% CI 1·26-8·76) and not washing hands following handling of raw eggs (OR 2·82, 95% CI 1·48-5·37) were significantly associated with SE infection. The population attributable fraction was 46% for any poultry meat consumption and 10% for processed chicken. Poultry meat continues to be identified as a risk factor for SE illness. Control of SE at source, as well as proper food handling practices, are required to reduce the number of SE cases.

A cocoon immunisation strategy against pertussis for infants: does it make sense for Ontario?

Pertussis deaths occur primarily among infants who have not been fully immunised. In Ontario, Canada, an adult booster dose was recently added to the publicly funded immunisation programme. We applied number-needed-to-treat analyses to estimate the number of adults that would need to be vaccinated (NNV) to prevent pertussis disease, hospitalisation and death among infants if a cocoon strategy were implemented. NNV=1/(P(M) X R) + 1/(P(F) X R), where P(M),P(F) (proportion of infants infected by mothers, fathers) were sourced from several studies. Rates of disease, hospitalisation or death (R) were derived from Ontario's reportable disease data and Discharge Abstract Database. After adjusting for under-reporting, the NNV to prevent one case, hospitalisation or death from pertussis was between 500-6,400, 12,000-63,000 and 1.1-12.8 million, respectively. Without adjustment, NNV increased to 5,000-60,000, 55,000-297,000 and 2.5-30.2 million, respectively. Rarer outcomes were associated with higher NNV. These analyses demonstrate the relative inefficiency of a cocoon strategy in Ontario, which has a well-established universal immunisation programme with relatively high coverage and low disease incidence. Other jurisdictions considering a cocoon programme should consider their local epidemiology.

The ethics of sharing preliminary research findings during public health emergencies: a case study from the 2009 influenza pandemic.

During the 2009 A(H1N1) influenza pandemic, a suite of studies conducted in Canada showed an unexpected finding, that patients with medically attended laboratory-confirmed pandemic influenza were more likely to have received seasonal influenza vaccination than test-negative control patients. Different bodies, including scientific journals and government scientific advisory committees, reviewed the evidence simultaneously to determine its scientific validity and implications. Decision-making was complicated when the findings made their way into the media. The normal trajectory of non-urgent research includes peer-review publication after which decision-makers can process the information taking into account other evidence and logistic considerations. In the situation that arose, however, the congruence of an unexpected finding and the simultaneous review of the evidence both within and outside the traditional peer-review sphere raised several interesting issues about how to deal with emerging evidence during a public health emergency. These events are used in this article to aid discussion of the complex interrelationship between researchers, public health decision-makers and scientific journals, the trade-offs between sharing information early and maintaining the peer-review quality assurance process, and to emphasise the need for critical reflection on the practical and ethical norms that govern the way in which research is evaluated, published and communicated in public health emergencies.

Poor seroprotection but allosensitization after adjuvanted pandemic influenza H1N1 vaccine in kidney transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND: Seasonal and pandemic influenza virus infections in renal transplant patients are associated with poor outcomes. During the pandemic of 2009-2010, the AS03-adjuvanted monovalent H1N1 influenza vaccine was recommended for transplant recipients, although its immunogenicity in this population was unknown. We sought to determine the safety and immunogenicity of an adjuvant-containing vaccine against pandemic influenza A H1N1 2009 (pH1N1) administered to kidney transplant recipients. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 124 adult kidney transplant recipients in the fall of 2009 at two transplant centers. Cohort 1 (n = 42) was assessed before and after pH1N1 immunization, while Cohort 2 (n = 82) was only assessed post immunization. Humoral response was measured by the hemagglutination inhibition assay. Vaccine safety was assessed by adverse event reporting, graft function, and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alloantibody measurements. RESULTS: Cohort 1 had a low rate of baseline seroprotection to pH1N1 (7%) and a low rate of seroprotection after immunization (31%). No patient <6 months post transplant (n = 5) achieved seroprotection. Seroprotection rate was greater in patients receiving double as compared with triple immunosuppression (80% vs. 24%, P = 0.01). In Cohort 2, post-immunization seroprotection was 35%. In both cohorts, no confirmed cases of pH1N1 infection occurred. No difference was seen in estimated glomerular filtration rate before (54.3 mL/min/1.73 m(2) ) and after (53.8 mL/min/1.73 m(2) ) immunization, and no acute rejections had occurred after immunization at last follow-up. In Cohort 1, 11.9% of patients developed new anti-HLA antibodies. CONCLUSION: An adjuvant-containing vaccine to pH1N1 provided poor seroprotection in renal transplant recipients. Receiving triple immunosuppression was associated with a poor seroresponse. Vaccination appeared safe, but some patients developed new anti-HLA antibodies post vaccination. Alternative strategies to improve vaccine responses are necessary.

Diagnostic strategy used to establish etiologies of encephalitis in a prospective cohort of patients in England.

The laboratory diagnostic strategy used to determine the etiology of encephalitis in 203 patients is reported. An etiological diagnosis was made by first-line laboratory testing for 111 (55%) patients. Subsequent testing, based on individual case reviews, resulted in 17 (8%) further diagnoses, of which 12 (71%) were immune-mediated and 5 (29%) were due to infection. Seventy-five cases were of unknown etiology. Sixteen (8%) of 203 samples were found to be associated with either N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor or voltage-gated potassium channel complex antibodies. The most common viral causes identified were herpes simplex virus (HSV) (19%) and varicella-zoster virus (5%), while the most important bacterial cause was Mycobacterium tuberculosis (5%). The diagnostic value of testing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for antibody was assessed using 139 samples from 99 patients, and antibody was detected in 46 samples from 37 patients. Samples collected at 14 to 28 days were more likely to be positive than samples taken 0 to 6 days postadmission. Three PCR-negative HSV cases were diagnosed by the presence of virus-specific antibody in the central nervous system (CNS). It was not possible to make an etiological diagnosis for one-third of the cases; these were therefore considered to be due to unknown causes. Delayed sampling did not contribute to these cases. Twenty percent of the patients with infections with an unknown etiology showed evidence of localized immune activation within the CNS, but no novel viral DNA or RNA sequences were found. We conclude that a good standard of clinical investigation and thorough first-line laboratory testing allows the diagnosis of most cases of infectious encephalitis; testing for CSF antibodies allows further cases to be diagnosed. It is important that testing for immune-mediated causes also be included in a diagnostic algorithm.

Diphtheria in the United Kingdom, 1986-2008: the increasing role of Corynebacterium ulcerans.

Diphtheria is an uncommon disease in the UK due to an effective immunization programme; consequently when cases do arise, there can be delays in diagnosis and case-fatality rates remain high. We reviewed 102 patients with infections caused by toxigenic corynebacteria (an average of four per year) reported in the UK between 1986 and 2008: 42 Corynebacterium diphtheriae, 59 C. ulcerans and one C. pseudotuberculosis, as well as 23 asymptomatic carriers. Five fatalities were reported, all in unvaccinated patients. The major risk factor for C. diphtheriae infection continued to be travel to an endemic country. C. ulcerans infections became more common than C. diphtheriae infections in the UK; they were associated with contact with companion animals. The occurrence of indigenous severe C. ulcerans infections and imported C. diphtheriae cases highlights the need to maintain UK routine vaccination coverage at the 95% level in the UK, as recommended by the World Health Organization.

Causality in acute encephalitis: defining aetiologies.

Defining the causal relationship between a microbe and encephalitis is complex. Over 100 different infectious agents may cause encephalitis, often as one of the rarer manifestations of infection. The gold-standard techniques to detect causative infectious agents in encephalitis in life depend on the study of brain biopsy material; however, in most cases this is not possible. We present the UK perspective on aetiological case definitions for acute encephalitis and extend them to include immune-mediated causes. Expert opinion was primarily used and was supplemented by literature-based methods. Wide usage of these definitions will facilitate comparison between studies and result in a better understanding of the causes of this devastating condition. They provide a framework for regular review and updating as the knowledge base increases both clinically and through improvements in diagnostic methods. The importance of new and emerging pathogens as causes of encephalitis can be assessed against the principles laid out here.

Pre-exposure rabies booster vaccinations: a literature review.

In Europe, more attention is turning towards human infection with European bat lyssaviruses (EBLVs). Following the death of a bat conservationist from EBLV in Scotland, in 2002, the Department of Health in the United Kingdom (UK) recommended that all bat workers receive prophylactic rabies vaccination. This systematic literature review aims to review the evidence base for current UK policy on rabies booster vaccination. Ten papers met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed. Most of the papers were prospective cohort studies with follow-up ending after the first booster vaccination. One year after a three dose intramuscular primary rabies vaccination course, 87.9-100 % of participants had a rabies antibody level > or = 0.5 IU/ml, before the first booster. It may, therefore, be prudent for the UK to reduce its current recommended interval, primary course to first booster, from two years to one year. More research, with longer follow-up, is required to enable recommendations on subsequent boosters to be made.

Epidemiology of serogroup C and Y invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) in Ontario, 2000-2013: Vaccine program impact assessment.

OBJECTIVES: A publicly-funded meningococcal serogroup C conjugate vaccine (MCCV) program was introduced in Ontario, in 2004/2005 for 1-year-old children as well as adolescents (approximately 12 years old). In 2009, quadrivalent meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4) replaced MCCV for grade seven students. Our objective was to determine meningococcal vaccine program impact on reported cases of serogroup C and Y invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) at the population level in Ontario, Canada. METHODS: Data were obtained from the Ontario reportable diseases system, the integrated Public Health Information System (iPHIS), and Public Health Ontario Laboratories (PHOL) for 2000-2013. Descriptive epidemiologic analyses, including age-specific rates for age groups based on program eligibility, were conducted. Changes over the 14-year observation period and comparison of pre- and post-program periods for MCCV and MCV4 were assessed. Analyses were conducted using SAS 9.3. RESULTS: There were 161 serogroup C IMD cases and its annual incidence decreased significantly over time (17.2% reduction per year [95% CI: 13.4 to 20.7]). The incidence of serogroup C IMD decreased significantly in children aged 1-17 years in the post-program period, based on age-specific incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Adolescents 12-16 years had the lowest serogroup C IRR (0.07 [95% CI: 0.01 to 0.55]); the rate decreased more than 14-fold between the pre- and post-periods. There were 187 serogroup Y IMD cases and there was a non-significant 1.6% reduction per year [95% CI: -1.9 to 5.1]) over the surveillance period. Likewise, there was a non-significant decrease in serogroup Y IMD among persons 12-16 years (MCV4 eligible) in the post-program period. CONCLUSIONS: Reductions in serogroup C IMD among program eligible and ineligible age groups suggest both direct and indirect MCCV vaccine program impact. Continued surveillance of IMD in Ontario is important to further assess MCV4 program impact.

Human Rabies Post-Exposure Prophylaxis and Animal Rabies in Ontario, Canada, 2001-2012.

In Ontario, Canada, the implementation of an annual rabies control programme in wildlife that began in 1989 resulted in a marked, steady decrease in the number of animal rabies cases. The number of animal rabies cases decreased from 1870 in 1989 to 183 in 2000 (Nunan et al., 2002 Emerg Infect Dis 8, 214). In our study period, the number of animal rabies cases continued to decrease from 210 in 2001 to 28 in 2012. The marked decrease in animal rabies cases since 1989 has resulted in a decrease in the risk of human infection. A concomitant decrease in the number of rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (RPEP) administered was anticipated but failed to occur. The mean rate of RPEP, 13.9 RPEP administered per 100,000 persons, from 2001-2012 was approximately the same as the rate in the 1990 s. Two possible reasons that the rate of RPEP administration has not decreased include strict adherence to RPEP recommendations and administration of RPEP when it is not recommended. A reduction in the number of RPEP administered, consistent with the decrease in the animal rabies cases, would provide some financial savings for the government. Ideally, an increased use of the risk assessment approach in keeping with recent guidelines, rather than adhering to previous prescriptive recommendations for RPEP administration, coupled with a continuing low incidence of animal rabies cases will result in decreased, and yet appropriate, use of RPEP. Consideration should be given to identify how guidelines could be revised to more effectively target high-risk exposures and reduce the administration of RPEP for instances in which the risk of rabies virus exposure is exceedingly low.

Canadian vaccine research networks: Vaccine safety resources for Canada.

The Public Health Agency of Canada / Canadian Institutes of Health Research Influenza Research Network (PCIRN), established in 2009 to undertake evaluative research to inform public health decision making in Canada, is now being replaced by the Canadian Immunization Research Network (CIRN), which will retain the mandate of PCIRN but expand it to all vaccines including influenza vaccine. CIRN is organized as a network of networks focusing on undertaking research in the areas of vaccine safety, adverse events following immunization (AEFIs), vaccine hesitancy, vaccine effectiveness, and vaccine coverage. CIRN's networks include: a clinical trial network; a laboratory network; a modelling and economics network; a network of social science and humanities researchers; a vaccine safety surveillance network; a hospital-based surveillance network; a clinic network to evaluate serious AEFIs; and a network that links vaccine research capacity in provincial health agencies and departments. PCIRN has contributed to Canada's vaccine safety surveillance system and has facilitated the translation of safety research into policy. Vaccine safety surveillance and research will remain a focus of the newly formed Canadian Immunization Research Network.

How best to estimate the global burden of pertussis?

In most countries, pertussis surveillance is inadequate for accurately estimating numbers of cases or deaths. Good estimates are needed to help set priorities for vaccination programmes. We aimed to develop a simple, reliable, and explicit method for estimating pertussis cases and deaths for children under 15 years to calculate the global disease burden in 1999. We estimated the proportion of susceptible children becoming infected in countries with poor vaccination coverage (<70%) in 1999 at 30% by 1 year, 80% by 5 years, and 100% by 15 years of age and for countries with good coverage (> or =70%) at 10% by 1 year, 60% by 5 years, and 100% by 15 years. Vaccine efficacy was estimated at 80% for preventing infection and 95% for preventing deaths. We used UN population estimates and vaccination coverage reported to WHO (adjusted for specific survey data if available). Case fatality ratios for countries with high and low child mortality were derived from published and unpublished work. For some countries with good vital events registration we used reported deaths adjusted for underascertainment. In 1999 there were an estimated 48.5 million pertussis cases in children worldwide. Deaths from pertussis were estimated at 390000 and at 295000 after adjustment for local data sources. Based on this approach, disability-adjusted life years from pertussis (12.7 million) in 2000 exceeded those of other preventable diseases such as lung cancer (11.4 million) and meningitis (5.8 million). This simple approach yields estimates that can be used for setting vaccination programme priorities. Better data are needed on the public health importance of pertussis in high mortality countries, the benefits of incomplete vaccination, and the harm from delayed vaccination.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and antimicrobial use in Belgian hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate relationships between the incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and the use of different classes of antimicrobials in Belgian hospitals. DESIGN: Using Pearson correlation coefficients, the number of new nosocomial MRSA-colonized or -infected patients in the second half of 1994 and the first half of 1995 reported by the national MRSA surveillance program was compared with use of various antimicrobial classes as reported by the National Institute for Sickness and Disability Insurance. Relationships between different classes of antimicrobials were evaluated in a correlation matrix. MRSA incidence, antimicrobial use, and potential confounding factors were included in a multiple linear regression analysis. SETTING: 50 hospitals in Belgium. RESULTS: The use of a number of different classes of antimicrobials was interrelated. In the multivariate analysis, the incidence of nosocomial MRSA increased with increasing use of ceftazidime and cefsulodin (P=.0003), amoxicillin with clavulanic acid (P=.02), and quinolones (P=.005). No association was found between MRSA incidence and total antimicrobial use. CONCLUSIONS: The relationships between antimicrobial use and MRSA are complex. Interventions aimed at promoting more rational prescribing patterns should be supported by adequate experimental and epidemiological evidence. Advice for preventing and controlling MRSA has focused mainly on hygienic measures and precautions to avoid cross-transmission; the role of relieving antimicrobial pressure needs to be clarified.

Epidemiology of Epstein-Barr virus infection in pre-adolescent children: application of a new salivary method in Edinburgh, Scotland.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) among primary school children by testing saliva with a new EBV capsid antigen "G" antibody capture radioimmunoassay (GACRIA). DESIGN: A population based sample of 7 year old schoolchildren were followed up at age 11. SETTING: 30 randomly chosen primary schools in Edinburgh, Scotland. PARTICIPANTS: 552 schoolchildren. MEASUREMENTS: Data on risk factors for infection were collected by questionnaire at ages 7 and 11. Saliva samples collected at age 11 were examined by GACRIA for evidence of previous infection with EBV. For 102 subjects, a second salivary specimen collected approximately one month after the first sample was available for testing as a measure of the repeatability of the method. MAIN RESULTS: Unequivocal results were found in 91% of samples and the repeatability of the test was good (kappa = 0.71). Fifty six per cent of children had antibodies to EBV. In a logistic regression analysis, independent risk factors for infection were sharing a room (odds ratio 1.78, 1.14, 2.79), head of household's social class IV/V compared with I (odds ratio 2.87, 1.08, 7.34), and schools serving predominantly rented housing estates (odds ratio 2.3, 1.09, 4.84). CONCLUSION: This study is the first application of EBV viral capsid GACRIA to salivary samples. The method was successfully used to describe the epidemiology of EBV. In this study, characteristics of the home seemed to be more important than those of the school in determining the likelihood of infection with EBV.

The public health response to a case of Lassa fever in London in 2000.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluation of the Department of Health 1996 guidance, the Memorandum on the Management and Control of Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers. METHODS: Description of the public health management in 2000 of the fifth UK patient confirmed to have Lassa fever. RESULTS: Delayed risk categorisation of the patient occurred for a variety of reasons. DH Guidance was followed once infection control advice was sought. Active surveillance of 125 contacts was extremely resource intense, involving over 3000 communications. Self-monitoring by healthcare workers should be considered in future. Advice on use of ribavirin prophylaxis is not included in the Memorandum, nor advice or templates for information sheets for contacts. Information sheets are now available from the Health Protection Agency in the event of future cases. International aspects not adequately addressed include the need for reliable risk assessment to be carried out before patients are medically evacuated from the country of origin, and the steps required to repatriate UK nationals. Effective and efficient communication is required between national and international organisations involved in such incidents. CONCLUSIONS: If guidelines are unclear or impracticable they will not be followed. It is important that lessons are learned and documented and that national guidance be regularly reviewed.