Pertussis outbreak in neonates and young infants across Italy, January to May 2024: implications for vaccination strategies.

Since January 2024, Italy experiences a pertussis outbreak, primarily affecting neonates and unvaccinated infants at high risk of severe complications and mortality; 11 major paediatric centres noted 108 hospitalisations and three deaths by 10 May. The outbreak reflects increased circulation of Bordetella pertussis and non-adherence to immunisation recommendations during pregnancy. Public health interventions, including maternal immunisation, vaccination of infants as early as possible and post-exposure prophylaxis, are critical for reducing the burden of pertussis and preventing further mortality.

Stime dell'antibiotico-resistenza in Italia e in Europa occidentale nel 2019: un'analisi comparativa basata su MICROBE.

BACKGROUND: antimicrobial resistance (AMR) will cause 10 million deaths per year worldwide by 2050, with economic costs of up to 100 trillion dollars. Antibiotic resistance (ABR) constitutes the majority of this health threat. Globally, 1.27 million people died in 2019 as a direct result of ABR. One in 5 deaths occurred in children under five, and 6 bacterial pathogens accounted for more than 70% of ABR-associated deaths. OBJECTIVES: to compare ABR estimates in terms of death and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) in 2019 in Italy and in Western Europe (WE) by grading the infectious syndromes and the bacterial pathogens involved, with the aim to identify the most urgent healthcare needs in Italy. DESIGN: the estimates of the burden of ABR in 2019 in WE and Italy, extracted from the Measuring Infectious Causes and Resistance Outcomes for Burden Estimation (MICROBE) tool by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME; Seattle, USA), reported deaths and DALYs associated with 33 bacterial pathogens across 12 infectious syndromes, as well as deaths and DALYs associated with and attributable to ABR for 23 bacteria and 86 pathogen-drug combinations. The comparison between WE and Italy was performed in steps. First, among the 12 groups of infectious syndromes from the Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) study 2019, the most impacting in terms of deaths and DALYs were ranked based on the magnitude of rates, and the corresponding ABR-associated burden was reported. Then, the burden of the leading pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and polymicrobial infections) for all infectious syndromes was compared between the two areas. Death and DALY rates associated with ABR were reported for each bacterium, together with the percentage of ABR-attributable burden. Although it is known that Italy is one of the WE countries with the largest share of elderly, crude rates were reported instead of age-standardized rates, in order to quantify the actual burden of ABR in the two areas. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Italy and Western Europe. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: death and DALYs rates per 100,000 inhabitants. RESULTS: the largest difference between ABR-associated death rates in the two areas was found for bloodstream infections (25.2 and 18.8 per 100,000 in Italy and WE, respectively), followed by peritoneal and abdominal infections (15.1 and 12.2 in Italy and WE, respectively). However, the percentages of deaths and DALYs attributable to ABR were always higher in Italy for all the infections considered. Regarding pathogens, Escherichia coli accounted for the greatest burden associated to ABR, in terms of both deaths and DALYs, in both areas. The highest ABR-attributable percentage of deaths was found for Acinetobacter baumannii (28.4% in WE and 31.9% in Italy), accounting also for the highest percentage of ABR-attributable DALYs (28.4% in WE and 31.7% in Italy). The pathogen-drug combination with the highest burden associated with AMR was Escherichia coli-Aminopenicillin, while the greatest AMR-attributable burden was found for Staphylococcus aureus-Methicillin (MRSA). On average, 55.4% of Escherichia coli was resistant to Aminopenicillin in WE, with Italy ranking third (67.6%). Nordic countries showed smaller values, with Sweden in last place (32.8%). The average percentage of MRSA in WE was 16%, with Italy exceeding it by more than 13 pointsConclusions: despite similar sepsis mortality rates in Italy and other WE countries, the proportion of ABR-associated and attributable deaths was higher in Italy. Targeted strategies aimed at reducing the circulation of bacteria and resistant microorganisms together with other interventions could lead to an overall reduction in deaths associated with ABR.

Deep Neck Abscesses in Children: An Italian Retrospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Retropharyngeal and parapharyngeal abscesses (RPAs, PPAs) usually affect young children. Surgical drainage and/or antibiotic therapy are treatment of choice, but no specific guidelines exist. In order to reduce the risk of severe complications, appropriate diagnosis and therapy are necessary. The aims of the study were to review diagnosis and management of children with RPAs/PPAs and to compare surgical versus medical approach. METHODS: This is a multicenter retrospective study including all patients younger than 15 years admitted at 4 Italian pediatric hospitals of Florence, Padua, Rome, and Treviso, with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision discharge diagnosis code of RPAs and PPAs, from January 1, 2008, to December 31, 2016. RESULTS: One hundred fifty-three children were included. The median age was 4.4 years, with overall male predominance. Heterogeneous signs and symptoms (fever, neck cervical, lymphadenopathy, pain, and stiff neck most frequently) and a large mixture of bacteria from pus cultures were detected. Computer tomography (66.7%) and magnetic resonance imaging (27.5%) were performed to confirm the presence of abscess. Fifty-one percent of abscesses were greater than 3 cm. Eighty-seven patients (56.9%) underwent surgery, and 66 (43.1%) were treated with antibiotics alone (mostly ceftriaxone, metronidazole, amikacin, and clindamycin) with median days of therapy of 26.5 days and length of therapy of 16.0 days of median. Median length of stay was 11 days. None had severe complications. Multivariate analysis indicated as independent predictive factors of surgery abscess of 3 cm or greater, high white blood cell count, and-most of all-the hospital of admission. CONCLUSIONS: Deep neck abscesses mostly affect patients in early childhood, with a combination of nonspecific signs and symptoms, and it still emerges as a heterogeneous approach in diagnosis and management of these infections. Thus, common shared protocols represent an essential tool in order to standardize care and improve patients' outcomes.

Accuracy of serum procalcitonin for the diagnosis of sepsis in neonates and children with systemic inflammatory syndrome: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: A number of biomarkers have been studied for the diagnosis of sepsis in paediatrics, but no gold standard has been identified. Procalcitonin (PCT) was demonstrated to be an accurate biomarker for the diagnosis of sepsis in adults and showed to be promising in paediatrics. Our study reviewed the diagnostic accuracy of PCT as an early biomarker of sepsis in neonates and children with suspected sepsis. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search was carried out in Medline/Pubmed, Embase, ISI Web of Science, CINAHL and Cochrane Library, for studies assessing PCT accuracy in the diagnosis of sepsis in children and neonates with suspected sepsis. Studies in which the presence of infection had been confirmed microbiologically or classified as "probable" by chart review were included. Studies comparing patients to healthy subjects were excluded. We analysed data on neonates and children separately. Our primary outcome was the diagnostic accuracy of PCT at the cut-off of 2-2.5 ng/ml, while as secondary outcomes we analysed PCT cut-offs <2 ng/ml and >2.5 ng/ml. Pooled sensitivities and specificities were calculated by a bivariate meta-analysis and heterogeneity was graphically evaluated. RESULTS: We included 17 studies, with a total of 1408 patients (1086 neonates and 322 children). Studies on neonates with early onset sepsis (EOS) and late onset sepsis (LOS) were grouped together. In the neonatal group, we calculated a sensitivity of 0.85, confidence interval (CI) (0.76; 0.90) and specificity of 0.54, CI (0.38; 0.70) at the PCT cut-off of 2.0-2.5 ng/ml. In the paediatric group it was not possible to undertake a pooled analysis at the PCT cut-off of 2.0-2.5 ng/ml, due to the paucity of the studies. CONCLUSIONS: PCT shows a moderate accuracy for the diagnosis of sepsis in neonates with suspected sepsis at the cut-off of 2.0-2.5 ng/ml. More studies with high methodological quality are warranted, particularly in neonates, studies considering EOS and LOS separately are needed to improve specificity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PROSPERO Identifier: CRD42016033809 . Registered 30 Jan 2016.

The Thousand Faces of Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections: Update on Epidemiology, Symptoms, and Therapy.

Invasive infections caused by Streptococcus pyogfenes (iGAS), commonly known as Group A Streptococcus, represent a significant public health concern due to their potential for rapid progression and life-threatening complications. Epidemiologically, invasive GAS infections exhibit a diverse global distribution, affecting individuals of all ages with varying predisposing factors. The pathogenesis of invasive GAS involves an array of virulence factors that contribute to tissue invasion, immune evasion, and systemic dissemination. In pediatrics, in the last few years, an increase in iGAS infections has been reported worldwide becoming a challenging disease to diagnose and treat promptly. This review highlights the current knowledge on pathogenesis, clinical presentations, and therapeutic approaches for iGAS in children.

Characterization of Natural Killer Cell Profile in a Cohort of Infected Pregnant Women and Their Babies and Its Relation to CMV Transmission.

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common herpesvirus causing lifelong latent infection in most people and is a primary cause of congenital infection worldwide. Given the role of NK cells in the materno-fetal barrier, we investigated peripheral blood NK cell behavior in the context of CMV infection acquired during pregnancy. We analyzed the NK phenotype and CD107a surface mobilization on PBMCs from CMV-transmitting and non-transmitting mothers and newborns with or without congenital infection. NK cells from non-transmitting mothers showed the typical phenotype of CMV-adaptive NK cells, characterized by higher levels of NKG2C, CD57, and KIRs, with reduced NKG2A, compared to transmitting ones. A significantly higher percentage of DNAM-1+, PD-1+, and KIR+NKG2A-CD57+PD-1+ CD56dim cells was found in the non-transmitting group. Accordingly, NK cells from congenital-CMV (cCMV)-infected newborns expressed higher levels of NKG2C and CD57, with reduced NKG2A, compared to non-congenital ones. Furthermore, they showed a significant expansion of CD56dim cells co-expressing NKG2C and CD57 or with a memory-like (KIR+NKG2A-CD57+NKG2C+) phenotype, as well as a significant reduction of the CD57-NKG2C- population. Degranulation assays showed a slightly higher CD107a geomean ratio in NK cells of mothers who were non-transmitting compared to those transmitting the virus. Our findings demonstrate that both CMV-transmitting mothers and cCMV newborns show a specific NK profile. These data can guide studies on predicting virus transmission from mothers and congenital infection in infants.

Antifungal Drug Usage in European Neonatal Units: A Multicenter Weekly Point Prevalence Study.

BACKGROUND: Data on antifungal prescribing in neonatal patients are limited to either single-center or single-country studies or to 1-day recording. Therefore, we assessed antifungal longitudinal usage in neonatal units (NUs) within Europe. METHODS: CALYPSO, a prospective weekly point prevalence study on antifungal drug usage in NUs in 18 hospitals (8 European countries), was conducted in 2020 during a 12-week period. All patients receiving systemic antifungals were included. Ward demographics were collected at the beginning; ward and patient data including indication, risk factors and antifungal regimen were weekly collected prospectively. RESULTS: Among 27 participating NUs, 15 (56%) practiced antifungal prophylaxis for neonates with birth weight <1000 g or <1500 g and additional risk factors. In total, 174 patients received antifungals with a median frequency per week of 10.5% ranging from 6.9% to 12.6%. Indication for antifungal prescribing was prophylaxis in 135/174 (78%) courses and treatment in 22% [39 courses (69% empirical, 10% preemptive, 21% targeted)]. Fluconazole was the most frequent systemic agent used both for prophylaxis (133/135) and treatment (15/39, 39%). Among neonates receiving prophylaxis, the most common risk factors were prematurity (119/135, 88%), mechanical ventilation (109/135, 81%) and central vascular catheters (89/135, 66%). However, gestational age <28 weeks was only recorded in 55/135 (41%) courses and birth weight <1000 g in 48/135 (35%). Most common reason for empirical treatment was late-onset sepsis; all 8 targeted courses were prescribed for invasive candidiasis. CONCLUSION: Antifungal usage in European NUs is driven by prophylaxis and empirical treatment with fluconazole being the most prescribed agent for both indications.

Assessment of three antibiotic combination regimens against Gram-negative bacteria causing neonatal sepsis in low- and middle-income countries.

Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) are a major cause of neonatal sepsis in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Although the World Health Organization (WHO) reports that over 80% of these sepsis deaths could be prevented through improved treatment, the efficacy of the currently recommended first- and second-line treatment regimens for this condition is increasingly affected by high rates of drug resistance. Here we assess three well known antibiotics, fosfomycin, flomoxef and amikacin, in combination as potential antibiotic treatment regimens by investigating the drug resistance and genetic profiles of commonly isolated GNB causing neonatal sepsis in LMICs. The five most prevalent bacterial isolates in the NeoOBS study (NCT03721302) are Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, E. coli, Serratia marcescens and Enterobacter cloacae complex. Among these isolates, high levels of ESBL and carbapenemase encoding genes are detected along with resistance to ampicillin, gentamicin and cefotaxime, the current WHO recommended empiric regimens. The three new combinations show excellent in vitro activity against ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae and E. coli isolates. Our data should further inform and support the clinical evaluation of these three antibiotic combinations for the treatment of neonatal sepsis in areas with high rates of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria.

Granulicatella bacteraemia in children: two cases and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Granulicatella spp. is a fastidious bacteria responsible for bacteremia and endocarditis which are fatal in about 20% of the cases. These severe infections are uncommon in children under 17 years of age and have proven extremely difficult to treat. CASES PRESENTATION: We report a brief review of the literature and two cases of NVS bacteremia by Granulicatella complicated by infective endocarditis (IE). The first one is that of a 7-year-old Caucasian female with Shone syndrome and IE involving the pulmonary valve homograft, confirmed by echocardiography. The second case is that of a 5-year-old Caucasian male. In this patient echocardiogram was negative for signs of IE; however, a "possible" IE was suspected on the basis of a cardiac catheterization 3 weeks before the onset of fever. Since in both our patients clinical failure of first line antibiotic treatment was observed, we used a combination of meropenem with another anti-streptococcal drug with excellent results. CONCLUSION: In Granulicatella bacteremia in the pediatric population, combination antimicrobial therapy including meropenem should be considered as a second line treatment in non-responding patients.

Novel Beta Lactam Antibiotics for the Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Infections in Children: A Narrative Review.

Infections due to carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) are increasingly prevalent in children and are associated with poor clinical outcomes, especially in critically ill patients. Novel beta lactam antibiotics, including ceftolozane-tazobactam, ceftazidime-avibactam, meropenem-vaborbactam, imipenem-cilastatin-relebactam, and cefiderocol, have been released in recent years to face the emerging challenge of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria. Nonetheless, several novel agents lack pediatric indications approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicine Agency (EMA), leading to uncertain pediatric-specific treatment strategies and uncertain dosing regimens in the pediatric population. In this narrative review we have summarized the available clinical and pharmacological data, current limitations and future prospects of novel beta lactam antibiotics in the pediatric population.

The Prevalence of Carbapenemase-Producing Microorganisms and Use of Novel Cephalosporins for the Treatment of Severe Infections Caused by Carbapenem-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria in a Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Unit.

BACKGROUND: The spread of carbapenem-resistant organisms (CROs) is an increasingly serious threat globally, especially in vulnerable populations, such as intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Currently, the antibiotic options for CROs are very limited, particularly in pediatric settings. We describe a cohort of pediatric patients affected by CRO infections, highlighting the important changes in carbapenemase production in recent years and comparing the treatment with novel cephalosporins (N-CEFs) to Colistin-based regimens (COLI). METHODS: All patients admitted to the cardiac ICU of the Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital in Rome during the 2016-2022 period with an invasive infection caused by a CRO were enrolled. RESULTS: The data were collected from 42 patients. The most frequently detected pathogens were Pseudomonas aeruginosa (64%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (14%) and Enterobacter spp. (14%). Thirty-three percent of the isolated microorganisms were carbapenemase producers, with a majority of VIM (71%), followed by KPC (22%) and OXA-48 (7%). A total of 67% of patients in the N-CEF group and 29% of patients in the comparative group achieved clinical remission (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: The increase over the years of MBL-producing pathogens in our hospital is challenging in terms of therapeutic options. According to the present study, N-CEFs are a safe and effective option in pediatric patients affected by CRO infections.

Pediatric COVID-TB: A Clinical Perspective Based on the Analysis of Three Cases.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and tuberculosis (TB) are currently two major causes of death among infectious diseases. Active tuberculosis and a history of tuberculosis appear to be associated with an increased risk of COVID-19. This coinfection, named COVID-TB, was never described in previously healthy children. We report three cases of pediatric COVID-TB. We describe three girls affected by tuberculosis, who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. The first patient is a 5-year-old girl who was hospitalized for recurrent TB lymphadenopathy. As she never had any complications related to the concomitant infection with SARS-CoV-2, she received TB treatment. The second case is a 13-year-old patient with a history of pulmonary and splenic tuberculosis. She was admitted to the hospital due to deteriorating respiratory dynamics. She was already undergoing treatment for TB, but in the absence of improvement, she also required treatment for COVID-19. Slowly, the general condition improved until discharge. The last patient, a 10-year-old girl, was hospitalized for supraclavicular swelling. The investigations showed disseminated TB characterized by lung and bone involvement without COVID-19-related complications. She was treated with antitubercular and supportive therapy. Based on the data obtained from the adult population and our small experience, a pediatric patient with COVID-TB infection should be considered potentially at risk of worse clinical outcomes; for this reason, we suggest close observation, careful clinical management, and consideration of targeted anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies.

The Use of Cefiderocol as Salvage Therapy in an Infant Receiving ECMO and Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy.

BACKGROUND: Infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) pathogens are increasing worldwide, representing a serious global public health issue with high morbidity and mortality rates The treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections has become a significant challenge due to its ability to develop resistance to many of the currently available antibiotics, especially in intensive care unit (ICU) settings. Among the very few therapeutic lines available against extensively drug-resistant (XDR)-PA and/or with difficult-to-treat resistance (DTR)-PA, cefiderocol is an injectable siderophore cephalosporin not licensed for use in pediatric patients. There are only a few case reports and two ongoing trials describing the administration of this cephalosporin in infants. CASE PRESENTATION: This report describes the case of a critically ill 8-month-old girl affected by ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) infection complicated by bloodstream infection (BSI) sustained by VIM-producing PA. She was treated with cefiderocol as a salvage therapy during ECMO and CRRT support. CONCLUSIONS: In healthcare settings, treating multidrug-resistant, Gram-negative bacteria poses a serious challenge, especially in pediatric patients. Our findings suggest that cefiderocol can be considered as an off-label rescue therapy in selected pediatric cases.

Severe viral respiratory infections in the pre-COVID era: A 5-year experience in two pediatric intensive care units in Italy.

BACKGROUND: Viral respiratory infections are one of the main causes of hospitalization in children. Even if mortality rate is low, 2% to 3% of the hospitalized children need mechanical ventilation. Risk factors for admission to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) are well known, while few studies have described risk factors for invasive ventilator support and prolonged hospitalization. METHODS: A retrospective study including all patients aged between 2 and 18 months with a confirmed viral respiratory infection, requiring admission to PICU from September to March between 2015 and 2019, was conducted at Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital in Rome, Italy. RESULTS: One hundred ninety patients were enrolled, with a median age of 2.7 months; 32.1% had at least one comorbidity, mainly prematurity. The most frequent isolated viruses were RSV-B, rhinovirus, and RSV-A; 38.4% needed mechanical ventilation. This subgroup of patients had lower median birth weight compared with patients not requiring mechanical ventilation (2800 g vs. 3180 g, p = 0.02); moreover, comorbidities were present in 43.8% of intubated patients and in 24.8% of patients treated with non-invasive ventilation (p = 0.006). Viral coinfection did not result to be a risk factor for mechanical support, while virus-bacteria coinfection was significantly associated with mechanical ventilation (p < 0.001). Similar risk factors were identified for prolonged hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS: Early identification of patients who could have a sudden respiratory deterioration and need of mechanical ventilation is crucial to reduce complications due to orotracheal intubation and prolonged hospitalization in PICU. Further studies are needed to define high-risk group of patients and to design targeted interventions.

Accuracy of Pancreatic Stone Protein for diagnosis of sepsis in children admitted to pediatric intensive care or high-dependency care: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic Stone Protein (PSP) is one of the most promising diagnostic and prognostic markers. The aim of the study was to assess the accuracy of PSP, compared to C-Reactive Protein (CRP), and Procalcitonin (PCT) for sepsis diagnosis in pediatric patients. Furthermore, we explored the correlation of PSP levels with sepsis severity and organ failure measured with PELOD-2 score. METHODS: Forty pediatric patients were enrolled following admission to pediatric intensive care, high dependency care or pediatric ward. PSP blood levels were measured in Emergency Department (nanofluidic point-of-care immunoassay; abioSCOPE, Abionic SA, Switzerland) on day 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 from the onset of the clinical signs and symptoms of sepsis or SIRS. Inclusion criteria were: 1) patient age (1 month to 18 years old), 2) signs and symptoms of SIRS, irrespective of association with organ dysfunction. Exclusion criteria were: 1) hemato-oncological diseases and/or immunodeficiencies, 2) pancreatic diseases. RESULTS: Septic patients showed higher PSP levels than those with non-infectious systemic inflammation. The optimal cut-off in diagnosis of sepsis for PSP at day 1 was 167 ng/ml resulted in a sensitivity of 59% (95% IC 36%-79%) and a specificity of 83% (95% IC 58%-96%) with an AUC of 0.636 for PSP in comparison to AUC of 0.722 for PCT and 0.503 for C-RP. ROC analysis for outcome (survival versus no survival) has showed AUC 0.814 for PSP; AUC 0.814 for PCT; AUC of 0.657 for C-RP. CONCLUSIONS: PSP could distinguish sepsis from non-infectious systemic inflammation; however, our results need to be confirmed in larger pediatric population.

Challenges in the Implementation of the NeoOBS Study, a Global Pragmatic Observational Cohort Study, to Investigate the Aetiology and Management of Neonatal Sepsis in the Hospital Setting.

Neonatal sepsis is a significant cause of mortality and morbidity in low- and middle-income countries. To deliver high-quality data studies and inform future trials, it is crucial to understand the challenges encountered when managing global multi-centre research studies and to identify solutions that can feasibly be implemented in these settings. This paper provides an overview of the complexities faced by diverse research teams in different countries and regions, together with actions implemented to achieve pragmatic study management of a large multi-centre observational study of neonatal sepsis. We discuss specific considerations for enrolling sites with different approval processes and varied research experience, structures, and training. Implementing a flexible recruitment strategy and providing ongoing training were necessary to overcome these challenges. We emphasize the attention that must be given to designing the database and monitoring plans. Extensive data collection tools, complex databases, tight timelines, and stringent monitoring arrangements can be problematic and might put the study at risk. Finally, we discuss the complexities added when collecting and shipping isolates and the importance of having a robust central management team and interdisciplinary collaborators able to adapt easily and make swift decisions to deliver the study on time and to target. With pragmatic approaches, appropriate training, and good communication, these challenges can be overcome to deliver high-quality data from a complex study in challenging settings through a collaborative research network.

Fulminant Fusobacterium necrophorum meningitis in an immunocompetent adolescent.

Fusobacterium necrophorum is an anaerobic, gram-negative highly virulent bacillus, isolated from the oropharingeal cavity, the gastrointestinal tract, and the female genital tract. It is responsible of several clinical syndromes, mainly in children or adolescents, ranging from localized abscess, usually in the upper respiratory sites, to severe septicemic diseases, including meningitis. We report the fatal case of an immunocompetent male with suppurative otitis media and meningitis. Initial empiric antibiotic treatment was not effective. After the recovery of anaerobic gram-negative bacilli from blood cultures, treatment with metronidazole was started, and a rapid improvement in laboratory parameters was observed. However, the patient's clinical course was incurable because of cerebral hypertensive complications. F. necrophorum was identified as the causative agent of this metastatic and fatal infection. This case has shown the severity of infection due to F. necrophorum and, at the same time, the underestimation of anaerobic bacteria in the spectrum of etiologic agents responsible for meningitis. Only a prompt diagnosis and an adequate treatment can improve the prognosis and avoid a fatal outcome.

Antimicrobial Prophylaxis for Urologic Procedures in Paediatric Patients: A RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method Consensus Study in Italy.

The main aim of surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis (SAP) in urologic procedures is to prevent bacteraemia, surgical site infections (SSIs), and postoperative urinary tract infections (ppUTIs). Guidelines for SAP in paediatric urology are lacking. Only some aspects of this complex topic have been studied, and the use of antibiotic prophylaxis prior to surgical procedures seems to be more often linked to institutional schools of thought or experts' opinions than to rules dictated by studies demonstrating the most correct and preferred management. Therefore, the aim of this Consensus document realized using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness method is to provide clinicians with a series of recommendations on SAP for the prevention of bacteraemia, SSIs, and ppUTIs after urologic imaging and surgical procedures in paediatric patients. Despite the few available studies, experts agree on some basilar concepts related to SAP for urologic procedures in paediatric patients. Before any urological procedure is conducted, UTI must be excluded. Clean procedures do not require SAP, with the exception of prosthetic device implantation and groin and perineal incisions where the SSI risk may be increased. In contrast, SAP is needed in clean-contaminated procedures. Studies have also suggested the safety of eliminating SAP in paediatric hernia repair and orchiopexy. To limit the emergence of resistance, every effort to reduce and rationalize antibiotic consumption for SAP must be made. Increased use of antibiotic stewardship can be greatly effective in this regard.

Safety of Monoclonal Antibodies in Children Affected by SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

Monoclonal antibody therapies for COVID-19 have been frequently used in adults, whereas there are little data regarding the safety or efficacy of monoclonal antibody treatments in pediatric patients affected by COVID-19. We report our experience in the administration of mAb as a treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection in children aged from 24 days to 18 years old.