Procedural learning, declarative learning, and working memory as predictors of learning the use of a memory compensation tool in persons with amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

Persons with amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (aMCI) are at risk for experiencing changes in their daily functioning due to their memory impairment. The Memory Support System (MSS), a compensatory calendaring system, was developed to support functional independence in persons with aMCI (pwaMCI). This cross-sectional study examined procedural learning, declarative learning, and working memory as predictors of MSS learning efficiency in pwaMCI. Sixty pwaMCI participated in MSS training. The Serial Reaction Time Test and Mirror Tracing Test were used to assess procedural learning. The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and CogState One Card Learning were used to assess declarative learning and the CogState One Back task was used to assess working memory. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess if procedural learning, declarative learning, and working memory predicted MSS learning efficiency. This study showed that declarative learning predicted MSS learning efficiency in pwaMCI, with less consistent results for procedural learning and non-significant results for working memory. Findings suggest that success in teaching compensatory tools is greater when training is offered in early aMCI before declarative learning skill is fully lost. Future studies should assess additional strategies to facilitate MSS learning in advanced aMCI.

Procedural Learning in Individuals with Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Dementia: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

The notion that procedural learning and memory is spared in Alzheimer's disease (AD) has important implications for interventions aiming to build on intact cognitive functions. However, despite these clinical implications, there are mixed findings in the literature about whether or not procedural learning remains intact. This meta-analysis examines the standard mean difference of all published studies regarding procedural learning in AD dementia or amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (aMCI) compared to cognitively healthy older adults. Additionally, we conducted statistical equivalence analyses. Our systematic review showed that only a limited number of studies (k = 17) have compared procedural learning between individuals with aMCI or AD dementia and healthy controls. Our meta-analysis, which synthesized these studies, demonstrated that while procedural learning performance was not statistically equivalent between individuals with aMCI or AD dementia, and healthy older adults, the difference was clinically and statistically trivial. Although larger studies are needed, the present findings suggest that procedural learning does appear to remain spared in aMCI and AD dementia.

Psychometric properties of the self-efficacy for managing mild cognitive impairment scale.

OBJECTIVES: We adapted a self-efficacy measure for managing chronic illness to be specific to persons with mild cognitive impairment (pwMCI). The aim of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the scale, the self-efficacy for managing MCI scale, for use in research. METHODS: Analyses involved data from pwMCI enrolled in a behavioral intervention study that completed the measure five times from intervention enrollment to 18-month post-intervention. Factor structure, construct validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability were analyzed. RESULTS: Factor analysis identified two factors, related to self-efficacy for daily activities and managing MCI, which corresponded with domains from the original chronic illness self-efficacy scale. Consistent with prior research, construct validity analysis suggested an association between memory-loss self-efficacy and psychosocial distress, but not cognitive or functional ability. Further analyses supported the scale's internal and test-retest reliability. CONCLUSIONS: Currently, no "gold standard" scale of memory-loss self-efficacy for pwMCI exists, despite the positive impact self-efficacy may have on modifiable health behaviors. Overall, results supported the notion that the scale is a valid and reliable measure of memory-loss self-efficacy for pwMCI.

Memory Support System training in mild cognitive impairment: Predictors of learning and adherence.

This study aimed to identify predictors of learning and adherence to a previously validated compensatory calendar and note-taking system (Memory Support System; MSS) in persons with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). Age, education, global cognition, depression, and memory-related self-efficacy were studied as predictors of individuals' ability to learn the use of the MSS during the two-week training and of their adherence to the MSS 6, 12, and 18 months after training. How well an individual was able to learn the use of the MSS was itself examined as a predictor of adherence. Two-hundred-and-fifteen older adults with aMCI and their study partners (e.g., spouse, adult child) received MSS training one-hour daily for 10 days. Ordinal logistic regression analyses indicated that (1) global cognition predicted MSS learning at end of training, and (2) MSS learning at end of trainng predicted MSS adherence at 6, 12, and 18 months post-training. The current study suggests that offering compensatory strategies as early as possible for those with MCI might be of most benefit, and might have implications for long-term adherence.

Reduced Awareness of Memory Deficit is Associated With Increased Medicare Home Health Care Use in Dementia.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine whether reduced awareness of memory deficits in individuals with dementia is associated with more frequent need for Medicare home health care services. METHODS: Cross-sectional analyses were conducted in a multicenter, clinic-based cohort. In total, 192 participants diagnosed with dementia and their informants were independently asked whether or not the participant demonstrated cognitive symptoms of dementia related to memory and word-finding. Participant self-awareness was measured as the discrepancy between participant and caregiver report of these symptoms. Annual Medicare home health benefit use data was obtained from Medicare claims matched by year to the Predictors study visit. RESULTS: Participants that used home health services had lower awareness scores than those who did not. Awareness remained independently associated with home health use in a logistic regression adjusted for age, gender, education, caregiver relationship, global cognition, dementia subtype, and medical comorbidities. IMPLICATIONS: Reduced self-awareness of memory deficits in individuals with dementia is associated with more frequent use of Medicare home health services. The disproportionate use of in-home assistance as a function of awareness level may reflect dangers faced by patients, and challenges faced by caregivers, when patients have limited awareness of their memory deficits. Current results have implications for clinical care, caregiver education, and models of health care utilization.

Increased Reporting Accuracy of Alzheimer Disease Symptoms in Caribbean Hispanic Informants.

INTRODUCTION: Informant report of symptoms is essential for diagnosing and characterizing Alzheimer disease (AD). Differences in the perception and experience of dementia across ethnicities may influence informant report. Understanding such differences is critical given that among those with AD, Hispanics are disproportionately affected. METHODS: Cross-sectional analyses examined informant report of cognitive and functional symptoms in mild AD across white (n=107) and Caribbean Hispanic (n=71) informants. To explore its accuracy, informant report of symptoms was compared against objective measures of patient performance. RESULTS: Adjusted analyses revealed Hispanics reported more symptoms than white informants. Informant report of symptoms was inversely correlated with patients' global cognition in both ethnic groups. Only Hispanic report of symptoms was significantly associated with memory and language performance. DISCUSSION: Informant report of symptoms was associated with patients' global cognition, reflecting relatively accurate informant reports in both ethnic groups, and was stronger in Hispanics when examining memory and language. Such differences may reflect cultural caregiving practices and perceptions of dementia, having implications for diagnosis and treatment.

Behavioral Interventions in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): Lessons from a Multicomponent Program.

Comparative effectiveness of behavioral interventions to mitigate the impacts of degeneration-based cognitive decline is not well understood. To better address this gap, we summarize the studies from the Healthy Action to Benefit Independence & Thinking (HABIT®) program, developed for persons with mild cognitive impairment (pwMCI) and their partners. HABIT® includes memory compensation training, computerized cognitive training (CCT), yoga, patient and partner support groups, and wellness education. Studies cited include (i) a survey of clinical program completers to establish outcome priorities; (ii) a five-arm, multi-site cluster randomized, comparative effectiveness trial; (iii) and a three-arm ancillary study. PwMCI quality of life (QoL) was considered a high-priority outcome. Across datasets, findings suggest that quality of life was most affected in groups where wellness education was included and CCT withheld. Wellness education also had greater impact on mood than CCT. Yoga had a greater impact on memory-dependent functional status than support groups. Yoga was associated with better functional status and improved caregiver burden relative to wellness education. CCT had the greatest impact on cognition compared to yoga. Taken together, comparisons of groups of program components suggest that knowledge-based interventions like wellness education benefit patient well-being (e.g., QoL and mood). Skill-based interventions like yoga and memory compensation training aid the maintenance of functional status. Notably, better adherence produced better outcomes. Future personalized intervention approaches for pwMCI may include different combinations of behavioral strategies selected to optimize outcomes prioritized by patient values and preferences.

Latent Factor Structure of Outcome Measures Used in the HABIT® Mild Cognitive Impairment Intervention Programs.

BACKGROUND: In Alzheimer's disease and related disorders (ADRD) research, common outcome measures include cognitive and functional impairment, as well as persons with mild cognitive impairment (pwMCI) and care partner self-reported mood and quality of life. Studies commonly analyze these measures separately, which potentially leads to issues of multiple comparisons and/or multicollinearity among measures while ignoring the latent constructs they may be measuring. OBJECTIVE: This study sought to examine the latent factor structure of a battery of 12-13 measures of domains mentioned above, used in a multicomponent behavioral intervention (The HABIT® program) for pwMCI and their partners. METHODS: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) involved 214 pwMCI-partner pairs. Subsequent Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) used 730 pairs in both pre- and post-intervention conditions. RESULTS: EFA generated a three-factor model. Factors could be characterized as partner adjustment (29.9%), pwMCI adjustment (18.1%), and pwMCI impairment (12.8%). The subsequent CFA confirmed our findings, and the goodness-of-fit for this model was adequate in both the pre- (CFI = 0.937; RMSEA = 0.057, p = 0.089) and post-intervention (CFI = 0.942; RMSEA = 0.051, p = 0.430) groups. CONCLUSION: Results demonstrated a stable factor structure across cohorts and intervention conditions suggesting that three broad factors may provide a straightforward and meaningful model to assess intervention outcome, at least during the MCI phase of ADRD.

Functional ability is associated with higher adherence to behavioral interventions in mild cognitive impairment.

Objective: Behavioral interventions during early memory decline hold promise in delaying the development of dementia. In the present study, participants in a multimodal behavioral intervention study were assessed for post-intervention adherence and predictors of adherence.Methods: Participants (N = 272, mean age = 75.04 ± 7.54) diagnosed with amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (aMCI) were assigned to intervention groups receiving four out of five behavioral intervention components, including yoga, memory compensation training, computerized cognitive training, support groups, and/or wellness education. Length of the intervention was 10 days, 4 h per day, with post-intervention follow-up at 6, 12, and 18 months.Results: Two-hundred and thirty-seven participants completed the 6-month post-intervention follow-up measures, 228 participants completed the 12-month measures, and 218 participants completed the 18-month measures. Participants fully adhered to a mean of 2 out of the 4 taught intervention components. Eighty-nine percent of participants were at least partially adherent to one or more taught intervention components at 6-, 12-, and 18-month post-intervention follow-up. Physical activity was the most adhered to intervention while group support was the least adhered to intervention across all three follow-up time-points. Higher educational level, higher baseline depressive symptoms, higher baseline global cognitive functioning, and better baseline and concurrent functional abilities were associated post-intervention adherence.Conclusion: Changes in functional abilities are associated with disease progression among persons with aMCI. In the present study, individuals with aMCI who have higher education, higher depressive symptoms, and better baseline functioning abilities are more likely to adhere to behavioral intervention components over time. Post-intervention adherence also associates with concurrent daily function.

Self-Efficacy Mediates the Association Between Physical Function and Perceived Quality of Life in Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment.

BACKGROUND: Research has shown that individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) value quality of life (QoL) above and beyond cognitive function or other potential outcomes in MCI. There is evidence supporting the negative impact of poor physical function on QoL ratings. OBJECTIVE: The study explored whether a modified measure of self-efficacy for managing MCI and education mediated and/or moderated the relationship between physical function and QoL in persons with MCI. METHODS: Baseline data from 200 participants with MCI were obtained from a larger study assessing the effectiveness of a behavioral intervention. Physical function was assessed by the Short Physical Performance Battery. QoL was assessed with the Quality of Life in Alzheimer's Disease scale. Memory-related self-efficacy was assessed using a modified 9-item version of the Chronic Disease Self-Efficacy Scales. Mediation and moderation analyses tested the hypotheses that self-efficacy and education alter the association between physical function and QoL in individuals with MCI. All analyses were adjusted for age, cognitive severity, and sex. RESULTS: Self-efficacy for managing MCI was a significant mediator of the association between physical function and perceived QoL. Individuals with better physical function reported higher self-efficacy which was associated with higher QoL ratings. CONCLUSIONS: Greater self-efficacy for managing MCI mediated the negative association between physical function and quality of life in this exploratory study. Interventions aimed at enhancing memory self-efficacy in MCI may improve perceived QoL, even in the presence of poor physical function. Future research is needed to investigate this further.

Assessing Dependency in a Multiethnic Community Cohort of Individuals With Alzheimer's Disease.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Clinic-based studies of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) have demonstrated the value of assessing dependence when characterizing patients' functional status. The Dependence Scale, a validated tool to assess level of caregiving needs, is associated with markers of disease severity, cost, and progression, while offering independent functional information about patients. This study examines whether such associations between the Dependence Scale and markers of disease severity demonstrated in clinical cohorts are similarly exhibited in a multiethnic community population of individuals with AD. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: One hundred fifty four elders with AD enrolled in the Predictors 3 cohort were assessed with the Dependence Scale, modified Mini-Mental State Examination (mMMS), instrumental (IADL) and basic (BADL) activities of daily living, and Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) Scale, and were assigned an Equivalent Institutional Care (EIC) rating. Cross-sectional associations were examined using bivariate correlations and one-way analysis of variance analyses. Fisher-z tests examined differences in strengths of associations across previous clinic and current community cohorts. RESULTS: Dependence Scale scores were associated with CDR (r = .20, p = .013), mMMS (r = -.23, p = .005), IADL (r = .39, p < .001), BADL (r = .65, p < .001), and EIC (r = .51, p < .001). Dependence was unassociated with ethnicity (F[3,144] = 1.027, p = .3822), age (r = .120, p = .145), and education (r = -.053, p = .519). The strength of the correlations was comparable across cohorts except that BADLs were more strongly associated with dependence (z = -4.60, p < .001) in the community cohort, and living arrangement was not associated with dependence (r = .13, p = .130). DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Associations between the Dependence Scale and markers of disease severity in a clinic-based cohort of AD patients are similar to associations in a multiethnic community cohort of individuals diagnosed with AD. The Dependence Scale relates to markers of disease severity rather than demographic factors, and may offer an unbiased assessment of care required in multiethnic and community populations.