Mepolizumab incompletely suppresses clinical flares in a pilot study of episodic angioedema with eosinophilia.

BACKGROUND: Episodic angioedema with eosinophilia (EAE) is a rare multilineage cyclic syndrome of unknown etiology characterized by episodes of angioedema, myalgia, fatigue, and fever that occur every 3 to 8 weeks and resolve between episodes without therapy. Cyclic elevations in serum IL-5 levels and neutrophils precede the increase in absolute eosinophil count (AEC) in most patients. OBJECTIVE: We sought to assess the role of IL-5-driven eosinophilia in the clinical manifestations of EAE. METHODS: An open-label pilot study of mepolizumab (700 mg intravenously monthly for 3 months followed by sequential dose reduction to the Food and Drug Administration-approved dose of 300 mg subcutaneously monthly) was conducted. The primary end point was reduction in the number and severity of clinical symptoms as assessed by patient-reported symptom questionnaires. Secondary end points were greater than or equal to 75% reduction in peak AEC after 1 dose of mepolizumab and sustained reduction in AEC after 3 doses of mepolizumab. Exploratory end points included effects of mepolizumab treatment on other cell lineages (numbers and surface marker expression), levels of plasma mediators, and biomarkers of eosinophil activation. RESULTS: Four female and 1 male (median age, 45 years) participants with EAE were enrolled. None of the 5 participants experienced a reduction in the number of symptomatic flares on mepolizumab therapy, and 1 participant withdrew before study completion because of lack of improvement. Peak AEC was reduced by 75% or more in 3 participants after the first dose of mepolizumab and in 4 participants after 3 doses. CONCLUSIONS: In a small cohort of participants with EAE, mepolizumab was unsuccessful in substantially reducing clinical symptoms despite reduction in AEC.

Visceral Leishmaniasis-Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Coinfected Patients Are Highly Infectious to Sandflies in an Endemic Area in India.

In an area endemic with Indian visceral leishmaniasis (VL), we performed direct xenodiagnosis to evaluate the transmission of Leishmania donovani from patients with VL-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection to the vector sandflies, Phlebotomus argentipes. Fourteen patients with confirmed VL-HIV coinfection, with a median parasitemia of 42 205 parasite genome/mL of blood, were exposed to 732 laboratory-reared pathogen-free female P argentipes sandflies on their lower arms and legs. Microscopy revealed that 16.66% (122/732) of blood-fed flies were xenodiagnosis positive. Notably, 93% (13/14) of the VL-HIV group infected the flies, as confirmed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and/or microscopy, and were 3 times more infectious than those who had VL without HIV.

Durability of Protection Against COVID-19 Through the Delta Surge for the NVX-CoV2373 Vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Protein-based vaccines for COVID-19 provide a traditional vaccine platform with long-lasting protection for non-SARS-CoV-2 pathogens and may complement messenger RNA vaccines as a booster dose. While NVX-CoV2373 showed substantial early efficacy, the durability of protection has not been delineated. METHODS: The PREVENT-19 vaccine trial employed a blinded crossover design; the original placebo arm received NVX-CoV2373 after efficacy was established. Using novel statistical methods that integrate surveillance data of circulating strains with post-crossover cases, we estimated placebo-controlled vaccine efficacy and durability of NVX-CoV2373 against both pre-Delta and Delta strains of SARS-CoV-2. RESULTS: Vaccine efficacy against pre-Delta strains of COVID-19 was 89% (95% CI: 75%, 95%) and 87% (72%, 94%) at 0 and 90 days after 2 doses of NVX-CoV2373, respectively, with no evidence of waning (p=0.93). Vaccine efficacy against the Delta strain was 88% (71%, 95%), 82% (56%, 92%), and 77% (44%, 90%) at 40, 120, and 180 days, respectively, with evidence of waning (p<0.01). In sensitivity analyses, the estimated Delta vaccine efficacy at 120 days ranged from 66% (15%, 86%) to 89% (74%, 95%) per various assumptions of the surveillance data. CONCLUSION: NVX-CoV2373 has high initial efficacy against pre-Delta and Delta strains of COVID-19 with little evidence of waning for pre-Delta strains through 90 days and moderate waning against Delta strains over 180 days.

Vaccine efficacy at a point in time.

Vaccine trials are generally designed to assess efficacy on clinical disease. The vaccine effect on infection, while important both as a proxy for transmission and to describe a vaccine's entire effects, requires frequent (e.g., twice a week) longitudinal sampling to capture all infections. Such sampling may not always be feasible. A logistically easy approach is to collect a sample to test for infection at a regularly scheduled visit. Such point or cross-sectional sampling does not permit estimation of classic vaccine efficacy on infection, as long duration infections are sampled with higher probability. Building on work by Rinta-Kokko and others (2009) and Lipsitch and Kahn (2021), we evaluate proxies of the vaccine effect on transmission at a point in time; the vaccine efficacy on prevalent infection and on prevalent viral load, VE$_{\rm PI}$ and VE$_{\rm PVL}$, respectively. Longer infections with higher viral loads should have more transmission potential and prevalent vaccine efficacy naturally captures this aspect. We demonstrate how these parameters obtain from an underlying proportional hazards model for infection and allow for waning efficacy on infection, duration, and viral load. We estimate these parameters based on regression models with either repeated cross-sectional sampling or frequent longitudinal sampling. We evaluate the methods by simulation and analyze a phase III vaccine trial with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cross-sectional sampling for subclinical infection.

The origin and speciation of orchids.

Orchids constitute one of the most spectacular radiations of flowering plants. However, their origin, spread across the globe, and hotspots of speciation remain uncertain due to the lack of an up-to-date phylogeographic analysis. We present a new Orchidaceae phylogeny based on combined high-throughput and Sanger sequencing data, covering all five subfamilies, 17/22 tribes, 40/49 subtribes, 285/736 genera, and c. 7% (1921) of the 29 524 accepted species, and use it to infer geographic range evolution, diversity, and speciation patterns by adding curated geographical distributions from the World Checklist of Vascular Plants. The orchids' most recent common ancestor is inferred to have lived in Late Cretaceous Laurasia. The modern range of Apostasioideae, which comprises two genera with 16 species from India to northern Australia, is interpreted as relictual, similar to that of numerous other groups that went extinct at higher latitudes following the global climate cooling during the Oligocene. Despite their ancient origin, modern orchid species diversity mainly originated over the last 5 Ma, with the highest speciation rates in Panama and Costa Rica. These results alter our understanding of the geographic origin of orchids, previously proposed as Australian, and pinpoint Central America as a region of recent, explosive speciation.

Causal interpretation of the hazard ratio in randomized clinical trials.

BACKGROUND: Although the hazard ratio has no straightforward causal interpretation, clinical trialists commonly use it as a measure of treatment effect. METHODS: We review the definition and examples of causal estimands. We discuss the causal interpretation of the hazard ratio from a two-arm randomized clinical trial, and the implications of proportional hazards assumptions in the context of potential outcomes. We illustrate the application of these concepts in a synthetic model and in a model of the time-varying effects of COVID-19 vaccination. RESULTS: We define causal estimands as having either an individual-level or population-level interpretation. Difference-in-expectation estimands are both individual-level and population-level estimands, whereas without strong untestable assumptions the causal rate ratio and hazard ratio have only population-level interpretations. We caution users against making an incorrect individual-level interpretation, emphasizing that in general a hazard ratio does not on average change each individual's hazard by a factor. We discuss a potentially valid interpretation of the constant hazard ratio as a population-level causal effect under the proportional hazards assumption. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the population-level hazard ratio remains a useful estimand, but one must interpret it with appropriate attention to the underlying causal model. This is especially important for interpreting hazard ratios over time.

Urine eosinophil-derived neurotoxin: A potential marker of activity in select eosinophilic disorders.

BACKGROUND: Biomarkers of eosinophilic disease activity, especially in the context of novel therapies that reduce blood eosinophil counts, are an unmet need. Absolute eosinophil count (AEC) does not accurately reflect tissue eosinophilia or eosinophil activation. Therefore, the aims of this study were to compare the reliability of plasma and urine eosinophil major basic protein 1, eosinophil cationic protein, eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN), and eosinophil peroxidase measurement and to evaluate the usefulness of eosinophil granule protein (EGP) measurement for the assessment of disease activity in patients with eosinophil-associated diseases treated with mepolizumab, benralizumab, or dexpramipexole. METHODS: Eosinophil granule protein concentrations were measured in serum, plasma, and urine from healthy volunteers and patients with hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES), eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA), and eosinophilic asthma using a multiplex assay. RESULTS: Urine EGP concentrations remained stable, whereas serum and plasma EGP concentrations increased significantly with delayed processing. Plasma (p) EDN, but not urine (u) EDN, concentration correlated with AEC and negatively correlated with prednisone dose. Both pEDN and uEDN decreased significantly following treatment of HES patients with benralizumab and EGPA patients with mepolizumab. uEDN appeared to increase with clinical relapse in both patient groups. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement of EGP in urine is noninvasive and unaffected by cellular lysis. Although plasma and urine EDN concentrations showed a similar pattern following benralizumab and mepolizumab treatment, the lack of correlation between AEC or prednisone dose and uEDN concentrations suggests that measurement of uEDN may provide a potential biomarker of disease activity in patients with HES and EGPA.

Genomic, spatial and morphometric data for discrimination of four species in the Mediterranean Tamus clade of yams (Dioscorea, Dioscoreaceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Among the numerous pantropical species of the yam genus, Dioscorea, only a small group occurs in the Mediterranean basin, including two narrow Pyrenean endemics (Borderea clade) and two Mediterranean-wide species (D. communis and D. orientalis, Tamus clade). However, several currently unrecognized species and infraspecific taxa have been described in the Tamus clade due to significant morphological variation associated with D. communis. Our overarching aim was to investigate taxon delimitation in the Tamus clade using an integrative approach combining phylogenomic, spatial and morphological data. METHODS: We analysed 76 herbarium samples using Hyb-Seq genomic capture to sequence 260 low-copy nuclear genes and plastomes, together with morphometric and environmental modelling approaches. KEY RESULTS: Phylogenomic reconstructions confirmed that the two previously accepted species of the Tamus clade, D. communis and D. orientalis, are monophyletic and form sister clades. Three subclades showing distinctive geographic patterns were identified within D. communis. These subclades were also identifiable from morphometric and climatic data, and introgression patterns were inferred between subclades in the eastern part of the distribution of D. communis. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a taxonomy that maintains D. orientalis, endemic to the eastern Mediterranean region, and splits D. communis sensu lato into three species: D. edulis, endemic to Macaronesia (Canary Islands and Madeira); D. cretica, endemic to the eastern Mediterranean region; and D. communis sensu stricto, widespread across western and central Europe. Introgression inferred between D. communis s.s. and D. cretica is likely to be explained by their relatively recent speciation at the end of the Miocene, disjunct isolation in eastern and western Mediterranean glacial refugia and a subsequent westward recolonization of D. communis s.s. Our study shows that the use of integrated genomic, spatial and morphological approaches allows a more robust definition of species boundaries and the identification of species that previous systematic studies failed to uncover.

Assessment of precision in growth inhibition assay (GIA) using human anti-PfRH5 antibodies.

BACKGROUND: For blood-stage malaria vaccine development, the in vitro growth inhibition assay (GIA) has been widely used to evaluate functionality of vaccine-induced antibodies (Ab), and Plasmodium falciparum reticulocyte-binding protein homolog 5 (RH5) is a leading blood-stage antigen. However, precision, also called "error of assay (EoA)", in GIA readouts and the source of EoA has not been evaluated systematically. METHODS: In the Main GIA experiment, 4 different cultures of P. falciparum 3D7 parasites were prepared with red blood cells (RBC) collected from 4 different donors. For each culture, 7 different anti-RH5 Ab (either monoclonal or polyclonal Ab) were tested by GIA at two concentrations on three different days (168 data points). To evaluate sources of EoA in % inhibition in GIA (%GIA), a linear model fit was conducted including donor (source of RBC) and day of GIA as independent variables. In addition, 180 human anti-RH5 polyclonal Ab were tested in a Clinical GIA experiment, where each Ab was tested at multiple concentrations in at least 3 independent GIAs using different RBCs (5,093 data points). The standard deviation (sd) in %GIA and in GIA50 (Ab concentration that gave 50%GIA) readouts, and impact of repeat assays on 95% confidence interval (95%CI) of these readouts was estimated. RESULTS: The Main GIA experiment revealed that the RBC donor effect was much larger than the day effect, and an obvious donor effect was also observed in the Clinical GIA experiment. Both %GIA and log-transformed GIA50 data reasonably fit a constant sd model, and sd of %GIA and log-transformed GIA50 measurements were calculated as 7.54 and 0.206, respectively. Taking the average of three repeat assays (using three different RBCs) reduces the 95%CI width in %GIA or in GIA50 measurements by ~ half compared to a single assay. CONCLUSIONS: The RBC donor effect (donor-to-donor variance on the same day) in GIA was much bigger than the day effect (day-to-day variance using the same donor's RBC) at least for the RH5 Ab evaluated in this study; thus, future GIA studies should consider the donor effect. In addition, the 95%CI for %GIA and GIA50 shown here help when comparing GIA results from different samples/groups/studies; therefore, this study supports future malaria blood-stage vaccine development.

Confidence intervals for prevalence estimates from complex surveys with imperfect assays.

There are established methods for estimating disease prevalence with associated confidence intervals for complex surveys with perfect assays, or simple random sample surveys with imperfect assays. We develop and study methods for the complicated case of complex surveys with imperfect assays. The new methods use the melding method to combine gamma intervals for directly standardized rates and established adjustments for imperfect assays by estimating sensitivity and specificity. One of the new methods appears to have at least nominal coverage in all simulated scenarios. We compare our new methods to established methods in special cases (complex surveys with perfect assays or simple surveys with imperfect assays). In some simulations, our methods appear to guarantee coverage, while competing methods have much lower than nominal coverage, especially when overall prevalence is very low. In other settings, our methods are shown to have higher than nominal coverage. We apply our method to a seroprevalence survey of SARS-CoV-2 in undiagnosed adults in the United States between May and July 2020.

Comparison between [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 and [18F]FET PET as Imaging Biomarkers in Adult Recurrent Glioblastoma.

The aim of this prospective clinical study was to evaluate the potential of the prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeting ligand, [68Ga]-PSMA-Glu-NH-CO-NH-Lys-2-naphthyl-L-Ala-cyclohexane-DOTA ([68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617) as a positron emission tomography (PET) imaging biomarker in recurrent glioblastoma patients. Patients underwent [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 and O-(2-[18F]-fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine ([18F]FET) PET scans on two separate days. [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 tumour selectivity was assessed by comparing tumour volume delineation and by assessing the intra-patient correlation between tumour uptake on [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 and [18F]FET PET images. [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 tumour specificity was evaluated by comparing its tumour-to-brain ratio (TBR) with [18F]FET TBR and its tumour volume with the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast-enhancing (CE) tumour volume. Ten patients were recruited in this study. [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617-avid tumour volume was larger than the [18F]FET tumour volume (p = 0.063). There was a positive intra-patient correlation (median Pearson r = 0.51; p < 0.0001) between [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 and [18F]FET in the tumour volume. [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617 had significantly higher TBR (p = 0.002) than [18F]FET. The [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-617-avid tumour volume was larger than the CE tumour volume (p = 0.0039). Overall, accumulation of [68Ga]-Ga-PSMA-617 beyond [18F]FET-avid tumour regions suggests the presence of neoangiogenesis in tumour regions that are not overly metabolically active yet. Higher tumour specificity suggests that [68Ga]-Ga-PSMA-617 could be a better imaging biomarker for recurrent tumour delineation and secondary treatment planning than [18F]FET and CE MRI.

Development of Inapparent Dengue Associated With Increased Antibody Levels to Aedes aegypti Salivary Proteins: A Longitudinal Dengue Cohort in Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: We established the first prospective cohort to understand how infection with dengue virus is influenced by vector-specific determinants such as humoral immunity to Aedes aegypti salivary proteins. METHODS: Children aged 2-9 years were enrolled in the PAGODAS (Pediatric Assessment Group of Dengue and Aedes Saliva) cohort with informed consent by their guardians. Children were followed semi-annually for antibodies to dengue and to proteins in Ae. aegypti salivary gland homogenate using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and dengue-specific neutralization titers. Children presented with fever at any time for dengue testing. RESULTS: From 13 July to 30 August 2018, we enrolled 771 children. At baseline, 22% (173/770) had evidence of neutralizing antibodies to 1 or more dengue serotypes. By April 2020, 51 children had symptomatic dengue while 148 dengue-naive children had inapparent dengue defined by neutralization assays. In a multivariate model, individuals with higher antibodies to Ae. aegypti salivary proteins were 1.5 times more likely to have dengue infection (hazard ratio [HR], 1.47 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.05-2.06]; P = .02), particularly individuals with inapparent dengue (HR, 1.64 [95% CI, 1.12-2.41]; P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: High levels of seropositivity to Ae. aegypti salivary proteins are associated with future development of dengue infection, primarily inapparent, in dengue-naive Cambodian children. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT03534245.

Rapid Parallel Adaptation to Anthropogenic Heavy Metal Pollution.

The impact of human-mediated environmental change on the evolutionary trajectories of wild organisms is poorly understood. In particular, capacity of species to adapt rapidly (in hundreds of generations or less), reproducibly and predictably to extreme environmental change is unclear. Silene uniflora is predominantly a coastal species, but it has also colonized isolated, disused mines with phytotoxic, zinc-contaminated soils. To test whether rapid, parallel adaptation to anthropogenic pollution has taken place, we used reduced representation sequencing (ddRAD) to reconstruct the evolutionary history of geographically proximate mine and coastal population pairs and found largely independent colonization of mines from different coastal sites. Furthermore, our results show that parallel evolution of zinc tolerance has occurred without gene flow spreading adaptive alleles between mine populations. In genomic regions where signatures of selection were detected across multiple mine-coast pairs, we identified genes with functions linked to physiological differences between the putative ecotypes, although genetic differentiation at specific loci is only partially shared between mine populations. Our results are consistent with a complex, polygenic genetic architecture underpinning rapid adaptation. This shows that even under a scenario of strong selection and rapid adaptation, evolutionary responses to human activities (and other environmental challenges) may be idiosyncratic at the genetic level and, therefore, difficult to predict from genomic data.

Benralizumab for PDGFRA-Negative Hypereosinophilic Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Hypereosinophilic syndrome is a group of diseases defined by marked eosinophilia in blood or tissue and eosinophil-related clinical manifestations. Benralizumab is a monoclonal antibody against interleukin-5 receptor α, which is expressed on human eosinophils. METHODS: In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial, we administered a series of three monthly subcutaneous injections of either benralizumab (at a dose of 30 mg) or placebo in 20 symptomatic patients who had PDGFRA-negative hypereosinophilic syndrome and an absolute eosinophil count of at least 1000 cells per cubic millimeter; all the patients were receiving stable therapy (drugs or dietary changes) for this disease. This regimen was followed by an open-label phase, during which the patient's background therapy could be tapered as tolerated, and an extension phase. The primary end point of the randomized phase was a reduction of at least 50% in the absolute eosinophil count at week 12. RESULTS: During the randomized phase, the primary end point occurred in more patients in the benralizumab group than in the placebo group (9 of 10 patients [90%] vs. 3 of 10 patients [30%], P = 0.02). During the open-label phase, clinical and hematologic responses were observed in 17 of 19 patients (89%) and were sustained for 48 weeks in 14 of 19 patients (74%); in the latter group, in 9 of 14 patients (64%), background therapies could be tapered. Bone marrow and tissue eosinophilia were also suppressed with benralizumab therapy. The most common drug-related adverse events, headache and an elevated lactate dehydrogenase level, occurred in 32% of the patients after the first dose of benralizumab and resolved within 48 hours in all patients. Other adverse events occurred with similar frequency in the two groups. Of the many potential predictors of response that were examined, only clinical disease subtype appeared to be associated with the initial response or relapse. CONCLUSIONS: In this small phase 2 trial, patients with PDGFRA-negative hypereosinophilic syndrome who received benralizumab for 12 weeks had lower absolute eosinophil counts than those who received placebo. During the open-label phase, clinical and hematologic responses were sustained for 48 weeks in 74% of the patients. Adverse events did not limit treatment. (Funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT00001406 and NCT02130882.).

Modifying the m6A brain methylome by ALKBH5-mediated demethylation: a new contender for synaptic tagging.

Synaptic plasticity processes, which underlie learning and memory formation, require RNA to be translated local to synapses. The synaptic tagging hypothesis has previously been proposed to explain how mRNAs are available at specific activated synapses. However how RNA is regulated, and which transcripts are silenced or processed as part of the tagging process is still unknown. Modification of RNA by N6-methyladenosine (m6A/m) influences the cellular fate of mRNA. Here, by advanced microscopy, we showed that m6A demethylation by the eraser protein ALKBH5 occurs at active synaptic ribosomes and at synapses during short term plasticity. We demonstrated that at activated glutamatergic post-synaptic sites, both the YTHDF1 and YTHDF3 reader and the ALKBH5 eraser proteins increase in co-localisation to m6A-modified RNAs; but only the readers showed high co-localisation to modified RNAs during late-stage plasticity. The YTHDF1 and YTHFDF3 readers also exhibited differential roles during synaptic maturation suggesting that temporal and subcellular abundance may determine specific function. m6A-sequencing of human parahippocampus brain tissue revealed distinct white and grey matter m6A methylome profiles indicating that cellular context is a fundamental factor dictating regulated pathways. However, in both neuronal and glial cell-rich tissue, m6A effector proteins are themselves modified and m6A epitranscriptional and posttranslational modification processes coregulate protein cascades. We hypothesise that the availability m6A effector protein machinery in conjunction with RNA modification, may be important in the formation of condensed synaptic nanodomain assemblies through liquid-liquid phase separation. Our findings support that m6A demethylation by ALKBH5 is an intrinsic component of the synaptic tagging hypothesis and a molecular switch which leads to alterations in the RNA methylome, synaptic dysfunction and potentially reversible disease states.

Estimation of vaccine efficacy for variants that emerge after the placebo group is vaccinated.

SARS-CoV-2 continues to evolve and the vaccine efficacy against variants is challenging to estimate. It is now common in phase III vaccine trials to provide vaccine to those randomized to placebo once efficacy has been demonstrated, precluding a direct assessment of placebo controlled vaccine efficacy after placebo vaccination. In this work, we extend methods developed for estimating vaccine efficacy post placebo vaccination to allow variant specific time varying vaccine efficacy, where time is measured since vaccination. The key idea is to infer counterfactual strain specific placebo case counts by using surveillance data that provide the proportions of the different strains. This blending of clinical trial and observational data allows estimation of strain-specific time varying vaccine efficacy, or sieve effects, including for strains that emerge after placebo vaccination. The key requirements are that the surveillance strain distribution accurately reflects the strain distribution for a placebo group throughout follow-up after placebo group vaccination, and that at least one strain is present before and after placebo vaccination. For illustration, we develop a Poisson approach for an idealized design under a rare disease assumption and then use a proportional hazards model to address staggered entry, staggered crossover, and smoothly varying strain specific vaccine efficacy. We evaluate these methods by theoretical work and simulations, and demonstrate that useful estimation of the efficacy profile is possible for strains that emerge after vaccination of the placebo group. An important principle is to incorporate sensitivity analyses to guard against misspecification of the strain distribution.

Clinical Endpoints for Evaluating Efficacy in COVID-19 Vaccine Trials.

Several vaccine candidates to protect against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection or coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have entered or will soon enter large-scale, phase 3, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials. To facilitate harmonized evaluation and comparison of the efficacy of these vaccines, a general set of clinical endpoints is proposed, along with considerations to guide the selection of the primary endpoints on the basis of clinical and statistical reasoning. The plausibility that vaccine protection against symptomatic COVID-19 could be accompanied by a shift toward more SARS-CoV-2 infections that are asymptomatic is highlighted, as well as the potential implications of such a shift.

A Deferred-Vaccination Design to Assess Durability of COVID-19 Vaccine Effect After the Placebo Group Is Vaccinated.

Multiple candidate vaccines to prevent COVID-19 have entered large-scale phase 3 placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials, and several have demonstrated substantial short-term efficacy. At some point after demonstration of substantial efficacy, placebo recipients should be offered the efficacious vaccine from their trial, which will occur before longer-term efficacy and safety are known. The absence of a placebo group could compromise assessment of longer-term vaccine effects. However, by continuing follow-up after vaccination of the placebo group, this study shows that placebo-controlled vaccine efficacy can be mathematically derived by assuming that the benefit of vaccination over time has the same profile for the original vaccine recipients and the original placebo recipients after their vaccination. Although this derivation provides less precise estimates than would be obtained by a standard trial where the placebo group remains unvaccinated, this proposed approach allows estimation of longer-term effect, including durability of vaccine efficacy and whether the vaccine eventually becomes harmful for some. Deferred vaccination, if done open-label, may lead to riskier behavior in the unblinded original vaccine group, confounding estimates of long-term vaccine efficacy. Hence, deferred vaccination via blinded crossover, where the vaccine group receives placebo and vice versa, would be the preferred way to assess vaccine durability and potential delayed harm. Deferred vaccination allows placebo recipients timely access to the vaccine when it would no longer be proper to maintain them on placebo, yet still allows important insights about immunologic and clinical effectiveness over time.

A Randomized, Placebo-controlled, Double-blind Pilot Study of Single-dose Humanized Anti-IL5 Antibody (Reslizumab) for the Reduction of Eosinophilia Following Diethylcarbamazine Treatment of Loa loa Infection.

BACKGROUND: Diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) treatment of loiasis is complicated by adverse reactions that are correlated with the number of circulating microfilariae (mf). The cause of these reactions is unknown, but they are accompanied by a dramatic interleukin-5 (IL-5)-dependent increase in eosinophilia and evidence of eosinophil activation. METHODS: To explore the role of IL-5 driven eosinophilia in post-DEC reactions, 8 adults with confirmed loiasis and <5000 mf/mL blood were enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the humanized anti-IL-5 antibody, reslizumab, (1.0 mg/kg IV) administered 3 to 7 days prior to initiation of DEC treatment (9 mg/kg/day for 21 days). The primary endpoint was the reduction in absolute eosinophil count (AEC) during the first week of DEC treatment. RESULTS: Baseline characteristics were comparable between the two groups. Single dose reslizumab lowered the AEC by 77% prior to initiation of DEC therapy (vs. 12% in the placebo group, P < .05). More importantly, AEC remained below baseline in the first week of DEC treatment in all subjects who received reslizumab and in none of the placebo subjects. Mf clearance occurred within 2 days of initiation of DEC in all 7 mf-positive subjects. Mild to moderate adverse events were seen in all 8 subjects and were not significantly different between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, although reslizumab was able to blunt peripheral eosinophilia post-DEC treatment in subjects with loiasis and had no effect on microfilarial clearance, the reduction in AEC appeared to have been insufficient to prevent post-treatment AEs.

Biogeography and genome size evolution of the oldest extant vascular plant genus, Equisetum (Equisetaceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Extant plant groups with a long fossil history are key elements in understanding vascular plant evolution. Horsetails (Equisetum, Equisetaceae) have a nearly continuous fossil record dating back to the Carboniferous, but their phylogenetic and biogeographic patterns are still poorly understood. We use here the most extensive phylogenetic analysis to date as a framework to evaluate their age, biogeography and genome size evolution. METHODS: DNA sequences of four plastid loci were used to estimate divergence times and investigate the biogeographic history of all extant species of Equisetum. Flow cytometry was used to study genome size evolution against the framework of phylogenetic relationships in Equisetum. KEY RESULTS: On a well-supported phylogenetic tree including all extant Equisetum species, a molecular clock calibrated with multiple fossils places the node at which the outgroup and Equisetum diverged at 343 Mya (Early Carboniferous), with the first major split among extant species occurring 170 Mya (Middle Jurassic). These dates are older than those reported in some other recent molecular clock studies but are largely in agreement with a timeline established by fossil appearance in the geological record. Representatives of evergreen subgenus Hippochaete have much larger genome sizes than those of deciduous subgenus Equisetum, despite their shared conserved chromosome number. Subgenus Paramochaete has an intermediate genome size and maintains the same number of chromosomes. CONCLUSIONS: The first divergences among extant members of the genus coincided with the break-up of Pangaea and the resulting more humid, warmer climate. Subsequent tectonic activity most likely involved vicariance events that led to species divergences combined with some more recent, long-distance dispersal events. We hypothesize that differences in genome size between subgenera may be related to the number of sperm flagellae.