Possible anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of apigenin in the setting of mild traumatic brain injury: an investigation.

OBJECTIVE: Apigenin is a plant flavone proven with biological properties such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects. This study, it was aimed to examine the possible anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of apigenin in the setting of the mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) model. METHODS: Wistar albino male rats were randomly assigned to groups: control (n = 9), TBI (n = 9), TBI + vehicle (n = 8), and TBI + apigenin (20 and 40 mg/kg, immediately after trauma; n = 6 and n = 7). TBI was performed by dropping a 300 g weight from a height of 1 m onto the skull under anesthesia. Neurological examination and tail suspension tests were applied before and 24 h after trauma, as well as Y-maze and object recognition tests, after that rats were decapitated. In brain tissue, luminol- and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence levels and cytokine ELISA levels were measured. Histological damage was scored. Data were analyzed with one-way ANOVA. RESULTS: After TBI, luminol (p < .001) and lucigenin (p < .001) levels increased, and luminol and lucigenin levels decreased with apigenin treatments (p < .01-.001). The tail suspension test score increased with trauma (p < .01). According to the pre-traumatic values, the number of entrances to the arms (p < .01) in the Y-maze decreased after trauma (p < .01). In the object recognition test, discrimination (p < .05) and recognition indexes (p < .05) decreased with trauma. There was no significant difference among trauma apigenin groups in behavioral tests. Interleukin (IL)-10 levels, one of the anti-inflammatory cytokines, decreased with trauma (p < .05), and increased with 20 and 40 mg apigenin treatment (p < .001 and p < .01, respectively). The histological damage score in the cortex was decreased in the apigenin 20 mg treatment group significantly (p < .05), but the decrease observed in the apigenin 40 mg group was not significant. CONCLUSION: The results of this study revealed that apigenin 20 and 40 mg treatment may have neuroprotective effects in mild TBI via decreasing the level of luminol and lucigenin and increasing the IL-10 levels. Additionally, apigenin 20 mg treatment ameliorated the trauma-induced cortical tissue damage.

High-resolution diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging of the brainstem safe entry zones.

Operative management of intrinsic brainstem lesions remains challenging despite advances in electrophysiological monitoring, neuroimaging, and neuroanatomical knowledge. Surgical intervention in this region requires detailed knowledge of adjacent critical white matter tracts, brainstem nuclei, brainstem vessels, and risks associated with each surgical approach. Our aim was to systematically verify internal anatomy associated with each brainstem safety entry zone (BSEZ) via neuroimaging modalities commonly used in pre-operative planning, namely high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and diffusion tensor tractography (DTT). Twelve BSEZs were simulated in eight, formalin-fixed, cadaveric brains. Specimens then underwent radiological investigation including T2-weighted imaging and DTT using 4.7 T MRI to verify internal anatomic relationships between simulated BSEZs and adjacent critical white matter tracts and nuclei. The distance between simulated BSEZs and pre-defined, adjacent critical structures was systemically recorded. Entry points and anatomic limits on the surface of the brainstem are described for each BSEZ, along with description of potential neurological sequelae if such limits are violated. With high-resolution imaging, we verified a maximal depth for each BSEZ. The relationship between proposed safe entry corridors and adjacent critical structures within the brainstem is quantified. In combination with tissue dissection, high-resolution MR diffusion tensor imaging allows the surgeon to develop a better understanding of the internal architecture of the brainstem, particularly as related to BSEZs, prior to surgical intervention. Through a careful study of such imaging and use of optimal surgical corridors, a more accurate and safe surgery of brainstem lesions may be achieved.

The effects of Cinnamaldehyde on early brain injury and cerebral vasospasm following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits.

The neuroprotective and vasodilatory effects of cinnamaldehyde have been widely studied and documented. On the basis of these findings, we hypothesized that cinnamaldehyde exhibits therapeutic effects on subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced early brain injury and cerebral vasospasm. Thirty-two adult male New Zealand white rabbits were randomly divided into four groups of eight rabbits: control, subarachnoid hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage + vehicle, and subarachnoid hemorrhage + cinnamaldehyde. An intraperitoneal dose of 50 mg/kg cinnamaldehyde was administered 5 min following an intracisternal blood injection, followed by three further daily injections at identical doses. The animals were sacrificed 72 h after subarachnoid hemorrhage was induced. The cross-sectional areas and arterial wall thicknesses of the basilar artery were measured and hippocampal degeneration scores were evaluated. Treatment with cinnamaldehyde was effective in providing neuroprotection and attenuating cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits. It effectively increased the cross-sectional areas of the basilar artery and reduced the arterial wall thickness; in addition, hippocampal degeneration scores were lower in the cinnamaldehyde group. The findings of this study showed, for the first time to our knowledge, that cinnamaldehyde exhibits neuroprotective activity against subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced early brain injury and that it can prevent vasospasm. Potential mechanisms underlying the neuroprotection and vasodilation were discussed. Cinnamaldehyde could play a role in subarachnoid hemorrhage treatment.

Central liponeurocytoma as a clinical entity.

INTRODUCTION: Liponeurocytomas are mostly localized in cerebellar hemispheres and the second most common location is the vermis. It is rarely observed within the intracranial ventricles. Here, we present a case of liponeurocytoma located in the right lateral ventricle and the systematic review of the literature. STATE OF THE ART: We searched PubMed with keyword 'central liponeurocytoma' and the references of the related articles. There were no language or year restrictions. We included articles focusing on liponeurocytomas located in the central nervous system leaving a total of 17 articles and 21 reported cases. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: A 62-year-old female presented with confusion and mental disorientation without any other neurological deficit. Her magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a lateral ventricle located mass lesion which was hypointense on T1-weighted images (WI) and heterogeneously hyperintense on T2-WI with cystic component. Via craniotomy, yellow-beige colored, soft and moderately vascularized mass lesion was gross totally resected. Despite postoperative MRI revealed total resection, patient had left-sided hemiparesis. The patient recovered well in her postoperative period and there was no recurrence on her 6th month follow-up MRI. FUTURE DIRECTIONS: Intraventricular liponeurocytoma has a favorable clinical course, and radiological features may be useful in the diagnosis of this rare tumor before surgery. Supratentorial intraventricular location should be kept in mind in the differential diagnosis of the lateral ventricular tumors.

Semivertical Incision: An Aesthetically and Electrophysiologically Effective Mini-Incision Technique for Carpal Tunnel Decompression.

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to present the clinical results of our retrospective series of carpal tunnel release (CTR) operations. For these operations we used a unique type of incision, for the first time, for treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) consisting of a 1-cm semi-vertical (SV) incision made into the wrist crease for macroscopic open CTR. MATERIAL AND METHODS This retrospective study included 114 patients (101 females and 13 males) with CTR who were operated upon in our neurosurgery clinic between December 2010 and June 2015. Patient ages ranged from 35 to 83 years (mean 55.05±12.04 years). In total, 127 hands (73 right and 54 left) were operated upon using the SV skin incision technique. After an average follow-up of 18 months (ranging from 6 to 30 months), clinical and electrophysiological (EP) evaluations were performed. RESULTS A review of the English language literature published since 1957, when Phalen first popularised the diagnosis and treatment of this disease, determined that no previous reports of the mini-open incision technique as described in our study have been published. In our retrospective patient case review, we found that after operations using the SV incision technique, statistically significant differences were detected in electromyography (EMG) improvements (p<0.01). In addition, patients who showed improvement in EMG studies (n=90) were satisfied with the result of their surgery. CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrated that 1-cm skin SV incision was a cosmetically satisfying, fast, and safe approach to CTR that was not only clinically effective but also electrophysiologically effective.

Microsurgical anatomy of the posterior median septum of the human spinal cord.

The aim of this study was to analyze the topographical anatomy of the dorsal spinal cord (SC) in relation to the posterior median septum (PMS). This included the course and variations in the PMS, and its relationship to and distance from other dorsal spinal landmarks. Microsurgical anatomy of the PMS was examined in 12 formalin-fixed adult cadaveric SCs. Surface landmarks such as the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the denticulate ligament, the architecture of the leptomeninges and pial vascular distribution were noted. The PMS was examined histologically in all spinal segments. The PMS extended most deeply at spinal segments C7 and S4. This was statistically significant for all spinal segments except C5. The PMS was shallowest at segments T4 and T6, where it was statistically significantly thinner than at any other segment. In 80% of the SCs, small blood vessels were identified that traveled in a rostrocaudal direction in the PMS. The longest distance between the PMS and the DREZ was at the C1-C4 vertebral levels and the shortest distance was at the S5 level. Prevention of deficits following a dorsal midline neurosurgical approach to deep-seated SC lesions requires careful identification of the midline of the cord. The PMS and septum define the midline on the dorsum of the SC and their accurate identification is essential for a safe midline surgical approach. In this anatomical study, we describe the surface anatomy of the dorsal SC and its relationship with the PMS, which can be used to determine a safe entry zone into the SC.

Use of the bovine pericardial patch and fibrin sealant in meningomyelocele closure.

BACKGROUND: Meningomyelocele is the most common and complex birth defect of the central nervous system. The operative principle of meningomyelocele repair consists of consecutive separate closures of the neural placode, dura mater, lumbar fascia, subcutaneous layer, and skin. While the neurosurgical techniques for the closure of the neural placode and dura mater have been well accepted, the most appropriate soft tissue closure technique has not yet been applied. METHODS: This study reviews a case series of eight meningomyelocele patients treated with the bovine pericardial patch and fibrin sealant. Following the reconstruction of the neural placode and the closure of the dura mater, soft tissue coverage was achieved using the bovine pericardial patch and fibrin sealant. RESULTS: In this series of eight patients, stable coverage was achieved with the application of a bovine pericardial patch and fibrin sealant technique. After the operations, none of the possible complications such as cerebrospinal fluid leak, seroma, hematoma, skin necrosis, deep or superficial infection, and wound breakdown was observed. CONCLUSIONS: The usage of the bovine pericardial patch and fibrin sealant technique at the fascial level-between the dural sac and the skin-provides adequate soft tissue coverage in meningomyelocele repair surgery.

Attenuation of cerebral vasospasm and secondary injury by testosterone following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbit.

BACKGROUND: The vasodilatator effects of testosterone have been widely studied and demonstrated. Based on previous studies of these vasodilatatory activities, we hypothesized that testosterone might have potential effects on subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced cerebral vasospasm. METHODS: Thirty-two adult male New Zealand white rabbits were randomly divided into four groups of eight rabbits in each group: group 1 (control); group 2 (subarachnoid hemorrhage); group 3 (subarachnoid hemorrhage + vehicle); and group 4 (subarachnoid hemorrhage + testosterone). Testosterone (15 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) was administered 5 min after the intracisternal blood injection and continued for 72 h once per day in the same dose for group 4. Animals were killed 72 h after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Basilar artery cross-sectional areas, arterial wall thicknesses, and hippocampal degeneration scores were evaluated in all groups. RESULTS: Intraperitoneal administration of testosterone was found to attenuate cerebral vasospasm and provide neuroprotection after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits. Testosterone treatment was determined to be effective at increasing the luminal area and reducing the wall thickness of the basilar artery. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that testosterone has some preventive effects on SAH-induced vasospasm and secondary neuronal injury in rabbits. We propose that the vasodilatatory activity of testosterone is due to its effects on inhibiting calcium channels, activating potassium channels, augmenting nitric oxide synthesis, and inhibiting oxidant stress and inflammation.

The comparative effects of recombinant human erythropoietin and darbepoetin-alpha on cerebral vasospasm following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in the rabbit.

BACKGROUND: Darbepoetin alpha is a hypersialylated analogue of erythropoietin effective for activating erythropoietin-receptors. This study investigated the vasodilator and neuroprotective effects of darbepoetin alpha on an experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage model and compared it with erythropoietin. METHODS: Forty adult male New Zealand white rabbits were randomly divided into four groups of ten rabbits each: group 1 (control), group 2 (subarachnoid hemorrhage), group 3 (erythropoietin), and group 4 (darbepoetin alpha). Recombinant human erythropoietin was administered at a dose of 1,000 U/kg intraperitoneally after the induction of subarachnoid hemorrhage and continued every 8 h up to 72 h. Darbepoetin alpha was administered at a single intraperitoneal dose of 30 µg/kg. Animals were killed 72 h after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Basilar artery cross-sectional areas, arterial wall thicknesses, hippocampal degeneration scores and biochemical analyses were measured in all groups. RESULTS: Both erythropoietin and darbepoetin alpha treatments were found to attenuate cerebral vasospasm and provide neuroprotection after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rabbits. Darbepoetin alpha revealed better morphometric and histopathological results than erythropoietin among experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced vasospasm. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings, for the first time, showed that darbepoetin alpha can prevent vasospasm and provides neuroprotection following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. Moreover, darbepoetin alpha showed better results when compared with erythropoietin.

Anatomical relationship and positions of the lumbar and sacral segments of the spinal cord according to the vertebral bodies and the spinal roots.

Segments of the spinal cord generally do not correspond to the respective vertebral level and there are many anatomical variations in terms of the segment and the level of vertebra. The aim of this study is to investigate the variations and levels of lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments with reference to the axilla of the T11, T12, and L1 spinal nerve roots and adjacent vertebrae. Morphometric measurements were made on 16 formalin fixed adult cadaveric spinal cords. We observed termination of the spinal cord between the axilla of the L1 and L2 spinal nerve roots in 15 specimens (93.8%). In all cadavers the emergence of the T11, T12, and the L1 spinal nerve roots was at the level of the lower one-third of the same vertebral body. In 15 specimens (93.8%), the beginning of the lumbar spinal cord segment was found to be above the T11 spinal nerve root axilla and corresponded to the upper one-third of the T11 vertebral body. The beginning of the sacral spinal cord segment occurred above the L1 spinal nerve root axilla and corresponded to the upper one-third of the L1 vertebral body. The results of this study showed that when the conus medullaris is located at the L1-L2 level, the beginning of the lumbar spinal cord segment always corresponds to the body of T11 vertebra. This study provides detailed information about the correspondence of the spinal cord segments with reference to the axilla of the spinal nerve roots.

Microsurgical anatomy of the denticulate ligaments and their relationship with the axilla of the spinal nerve roots.

The denticulate ligaments (DL), 20 or 21 pairs of meningeal extensions, spread from the lateral aspect of the spinal cord to the internal aspect of the spinal dura mater. The aim of this study is to define the specific relationship of the DL with adjacent axilla of the spinal nerve roots and to investigate the anatomical features of the DLs and their variations. The topographical anatomy of the DLs and their relationships with the adjacent axilla of the spinal nerve roots was examined on 16 formalin-fixed adult cadaveric spinal cords. The distances from the dural attachment of the DL to the axilla of the superior and inferior spinal nerve roots were measured bilaterally at every spinal level. Also the distances from the dural attachment of the DL to the lateral aspect of the spinal cord were measured bilaterally. Cervical DLs showed a triangular shape, while in the thoracic segment the ligament changes the shape to "Y." Also the most caudal DL was identified to be at the L1-2 level. Our study revealed that the distances from the dural attachment of the DL to the superior and inferior spinal nerve root axilla were different at the cervical, upper thoracic and the lower thoracic segments. Both distances to the superior and inferior spinal nerve root axilla were shown to increase from cervical to lower thoracic segments. This study provides a detailed anatomy of the DLs and their relationship with the adjacent spinal nerve root axilla.

Cinnamaldehyde has Antifibrotic Effects on Rats with Epidural Fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Laminectomy is a widely employed surgical procedure for the treatment of spinal stenosis, but it may lead to epidural fibrosis (EF) and failed back surgery syndrome. Cinnamaldehyde, a phenylpropanoid found in cinnamon, has demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In the present study, we hypothesized that topical application and systemic administration of cinnamaldehyde could be helpful in the prevention of EF in a rat laminectomy model. METHODS: The rats were randomly assigned to control, local, and systemic Tween-80 and local and systemic cinnamaldehyde experimental groups (n = 6, per group). In the control group, just laminectomy was performed. In local treatment groups, applications were done just after the laminectomy onto dura. In systemic treatment groups, intraperitoneal administrations were performed following skin suturing. The degree of epidural fibrosis was evaluated macroscopically and histopathologically 4 weeks later. RESULTS: Macroscopic assessment revealed decreased EF with both topical and systemic cinnamaldehyde application, whereas microscopic examination results were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide the first experimental evidence of cinnamaldehyde's potential protective effects against EF.

The protective effect of 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate (MESNA) against traumatic brain injury in rats.

BACKGROUND: The agent, 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate (MESNA), is a synthetic small molecule, widely used as a systemic protective agent against chemotherapy toxicity, but is primarily used to reduce hemorrhagic cystitis induced by cyclophosphamide. Because MESNA has potential antioxidant and cytoprotective effects, so we hypothesized that MESNA may protect the brain against traumatic injury. METHOD: Thirty-two rats were randomized into four groups of eight animals each; Group 1 (sham), Group 2 (trauma), Group 3 (150 mg/kg MESNA), Group 4 (30 mg/kg methylprednisolone). Only skin incision was performed in the sham group. In all the other groups, the traumatic brain injury model was created by an object weighing 450 g falling freely from a height of 70 cm through a copper tube on to the metal disc over the skull. The drugs were administered immediately after the injury. The animals were killed 24 h later. Brain tissues were extracted for analysis, where levels of tissue malondialdehyde, caspase-3, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthetase and xanthine oxidase were analyzed. Also, histopathological evaluation of the tissues was performed. RESULTS: After head trauma, tissue malondialdehyde levels increased; these levels were significantly decreased by MESNA administration. Caspase-3 levels were increased after trauma, but no effect of MESNA was determined in caspase-3 activity. Following trauma, both glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase levels were decreased; MESNA increased the activity of both these antioxidant enzymes. Also, after trauma, nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthetase and xanthine oxidase levels were increased; administration of MESNA significantly decreased the levels of nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthetase and xanthine oxidase, promising an antioxidant activity. Histopathological analysis showed that MESNA protected the brain tissues well from injury. CONCLUSIONS: Although further studies considering different dose regimens and time intervals are required, MESNA was shown to be at least as effective as methylprednisolone in the traumatic brain injury model.

The surgical outcome of traumatic extra-axial hematomas causing brain herniation in children.

AIM: The aim of this study was to assess the surgical outcome and prognostic importance of clinical and radiological data from children operated on under emergency conditions due to an extra-axial hematoma causing brain herniation. METHODS: This retrospective study included 25 children operated on due to herniated traumatic extra-axial hematomas from January 2000 to December 2010. RESULTS: Of those 25 children, 17 (68%) were diagnosed with subdural hematoma (SDH), 7 (28%) with epidural hematoma (EDH) and only 1 patient (4%) suffered from both SDH and EDH. Overall mortality from a herniated extra-axial hematoma was 44%. The mortality rate for herniated SDH patients was 52.9%, and only 1 patient died from a herniated EDH (14.2%). Low Glasgow coma scale scores at admission, high postoperative intracranial pressure (ICP) values, longer intervals from trauma to surgery, longer durations of brain herniation, the presence of intraoperative brain swelling, larger and thicker hematomas and more displacement of the midline structures and obliteration of the basal cisterns were all correlated with mortality and an unfavorable outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Brain herniation is a serious consequence of traumatic extra-axial hematomas in children, and approximately one third of these patients have the potential for a favorable outcome. We recommend postoperative ICP monitoring to predict outcome and early decompressive surgery when possible for promising results.

Giant intradiploic epidermoid cyst presenting as solitary skull mass with intracranial extension.

Epidermoid cysts are rare benign tumors that constitute 0.3% to 1.8% of all intracranial tumors. They are inclusion tumors that include epidermoid elements and are most commonly located in the cerebellopontine angle cistern and the parasellar region, and their location in the diploic space is very rare. These lesions slowly grow and usually do not involve the intracranial compartment. In this article, a case of giant epidermoid cyst located in the left frontal intradiploic space is presented with clinical, radiologic features and surgical treatment.

The subparietal and parietooccipital sulci: an anatomical study.

The subparietal and parietooccipital sulci are both located on the medial surface of the brain. Both of these sulci reveal significant variability in pattern and complexity. Both subparietal and parietooccipital sulci play an important role as surgical landmarks using posterior interhemispheric parietooccipital approach to lesions located adjacent to the ventricular trigon deep to the cingulate gyrus. The aim of this study is to analyze variations in the patterns of the subparietal and parietooccipital sulci and to emphasize their surgical importance. Fifty-six formalin-fixed cadaveric cerebral hemispheres from 28 adult humans are examined. Subparietal and parietal sulci patterns, variations and their relationship with the cingulate sulcus are studied according to the terminology introduced by Ono et al. The H-pattern was observed in 50% (n = 28) of all hemispheres, being the most common pattern of the subparietal sulcus. The Straight pattern was observed in the 30.4% (n = 17) of all hemispheres, being the most common pattern of the parietooccipital sulcus. Furthermore, more detailed results among the patterns, connections, side branches and the relationship with the adjacent sulci are given. Our study further confirms the complexities in the patterns of the subparietal and parietooccipital sulci and demonstrates that these sulci fall within an expected range of variations. Better knowledge of these variations will further help neurosurgeons to navigate easily during approaches involving the medial surface of the parietal lobe. Clin. Anat. 26:667-674, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Surgical Management Thoracolumbar Fractures in Patients with Ankylosing Spondylitis: Technical Note with Case Series.

OBJECTIVE: Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory joint disease. Complications such as traumatic spinal fractures are mostly caused by hyperextension and are unstable. We report the cases of 5 patients with AS surgically treated for thoracolumbar fractures. METHODS AND RESULTS: We shared our experience of posterior stabilization surgery performed for the treatment of thoracolumbar fractures after traumas such as fall-accident in patients with AS. Patients were all men, and their ages were between 52 and 77 years. The first 3 patients woke up with neurologic deficits and were managed surgically under general anesthesia. We managed the last 2 patients with unilateral short-level stabilization under local anesthesia followed by bilateral long-level stabilization under general anesthesia. No neurologic deterioration was found in the postoperative examination of these 2 patients. We assume that the reason for neurologic deterioration after general anesthesia is the relaxation of muscles. All 3 columns of the spine are affected in patients with AS and the stability is provided by the tone of the muscles around the spine. CONCLUSIONS: To prevent postoperative neurologic complications after the surgical treatment of traumatic hyperextension thoracic and lumbar fractures in patients with AS, we recommend securing the fracture level with unilateral short-level stabilization under local anesthesia and then completing the operation with general anesthesia.

Neuroprotective Effects of Niacin on Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury of the Rabbit Spinal Cord.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown niacin has neuroprotective effects on the central nervous system. However, its specific effect on spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury has not yet been explored. This study aims to evaluate whether niacin can contribute neuroprotective effects on spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury. METHODS: Rabbits were randomized into 4 groups of 8 animals: group I (control), group II (ischemia), group III (30 mg/kg methylprednisolone, intraperitoneal), and group IV (500 mg/kg niacin, intraperitoneal). The rabbits in group IV were premedicated with niacin for 7 days prior to inducing ischemia/reperfusion injury. The control group was subjected only to a laparotomy, while the remaining groups underwent spinal cord ischemia through a 20-minute occlusion of the aorta caudal to the left renal artery. Following the procedure, levels of catalase, malondialdehyde, xanthine oxidase, myeloperoxidase, and caspase-3 were analyzed. Ultrastructural, histopathological, and neurological evaluations were also performed. RESULTS: Spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury resulted in increased levels of xanthine oxidase, malondialdehyde, myeloperoxidase, and caspase-3, with a concomitant decrease in catalase levels. Treatment with methylprednisolone and niacin led to decreased levels of xanthine oxidase, malondialdehyde, myeloperoxidase, and caspase-3 and an increase in catalase. Both methylprednisolone and niacin treatments demonstrated improvements in histopathological, ultrastructural, and neurological assessments. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that niacin has antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects at least equal to methylprednisolone in ischemia/reperfusion injury of the spinal cord. This study is the first to report the neuroprotective impact of niacin on spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury. Further research is warranted to elucidate the role of niacin in this context.

Mildronate Has Ameliorative Effects on the Experimental Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Model in the Rabbit Spinal Cord.

BACKGROUND: Mildronate is a useful anti-ischemic agent and has antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective activities. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential neuroprotective effects of mildronate in the experimental rabbit spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury (SCIRI) model. METHODS: Rabbits were randomized into 5 groups of 8 animals as groups 1 (control), 2 (ischemia), 3 (vehicle), 4 (30 mg/kg methylprednisolone [MP]), and 5 (100 mg/kg mildronate). The control group underwent only laparotomy. The other groups have the spinal cord ischemia model by a 20-minute aortic occlusion just caudal to the renal artery. The malondialdehyde and catalase levels and caspase-3, myeloperoxidase, and xanthine oxidase activities were investigated. Neurologic, histopathologic, and ultrastructural evaluations were also performed. RESULTS: The serum and tissue myeloperoxidase, malondialdehyde, and caspase-3 values of the ischemia and vehicle groups were statistically significantly higher than those of the MP and mildronate groups (P < 0.001). Serum and tissue catalase values of the ischemia and vehicle groups were statistically significantly lower than those of the control, MP, and mildronate groups (P < 0.001). The histopathologic evaluation showed a statistically significantly lower score in the mildronate and MP groups than in the ischemia and vehicle groups (P < 0.001). The modified Tarlov scores of the ischemia and vehicle groups were statistically significantly lower than those of the control, MP, and mildronate groups (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study presented the antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and neuroprotective effects of mildronate on SCIRI. Future studies will elucidate its possible use in clinical settings in SCIRI.

Cerebrolysin Amelioration of Spinal Cord Ischemia/ Reperfusion Injury in Rabbit Model.

AIM: To investigate the effects of cerebrolysin on inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and neurologic recovery in the setting of an experimental rabbit model of spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury (SCIRI). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Rabbits were randomly divided into five groups: control, ischemia, vehicle, methylprednisolone (30 mg/kg), and cerebrolysin (5 ml/kg) group. The rabbits in the control group underwent only laparotomy; the other groups underwent spinal cord ischemia and reperfusion injury for 20 minutes. Neurologic examination after 24 hours was based on the Modified Tarlov scale. Myeloperoxidase activities, catalase and malondialdehyde levels, and caspase-3 concentrations were determined in serum and tissue samples. Serum xanthine oxidase levels were studied and histopathological and ultrastructural changes were examined. RESULTS: After SCIRI, serum and tissue myeloperoxidase activities, malondialdehyde levels, caspase-3 concentrations, and serum xanthine oxidase activities were increased (p < 0.01?0.001). Catalase levels were significantly diminished (p < 0.001). Cerebrolysin treatment correlated with reduced myeloperoxidase and xanthine oxidase activities, malondialdehyde levels and caspase-3 concentrations; and with increased catalase levels (p < 0.001, for all). The cerebrolysin group showed improved histopathological, ultrastructural, and neurological outcomes. CONCLUSION: For the first time in the literature, the current study reports anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and neuroprotective effects of cerebrolysin in a SCIRI rabbit model.