Clinical Signs for Differential Diagnosis of Eyelid Tumours.

This article aims to present the differential diagnostics of benign and malignant eyelid tumours. The most common malignant eyelid tumour is basal cell carcinoma, followed by squamous cell carcinoma. The common signs of malignity are loss of lashes, ulceration, and infiltration of the lesion. Often the clinical appearance is various and therefore only a histological analysis gives the proper diagnosis. For most tumours, surgical resection is the gold standard of therapy. The reconstruction of the defects should be performed by an experienced oculoplastic surgeon. In malignant tumours that require large safety margins, the defect can be easily very large, and the reconstruction must then be performed with advanced ophthalmic plastic reconstruction techniques.

Therapy Failure and Resistance Mechanism in Eyelid and Ocular Surface Tumors.

Malignant tumors of the eyelids and ocular surface are common ocular malignancies. At present, surgical treatment is mostly the first choice for these types of tumors. However, postoperative tumor recurrence and metastasis are still regarded as failures in the treatment of such malignancies. Based on this, malignant tumors of the eyelid and ocular surface are sometimes accompanied by local adjuvant chemotherapy and systemic chemotherapy to treat patients with relapse, invasion of adjacent tissues, and systemic metastases. Still, drug resistance greatly affects the treatment effect. This review lists several mechanisms of recurrence and metastasis of ocular surface and eyelid tumors after surgery, as well as mechanisms that may lead to non-surgical treatment or drug resistance.

Embryonic Development of the Orbit.

The embryonic and fetal development of the orbit comprises a series of sequential events, starting with the fertilization of the ovum and extending until birth. Most of the publications dealing with orbital morphogenesis describe the sequential development of each germinal layer, the ectoderm with its neuroectoderm derivative and the mesoderm. This approach provides a clear understanding of the mode of development of each layer but does not give the reader a general picture of the structure of the orbit within any specified time frame. In order to enhance our understanding of the developmental anatomy of the orbit, the authors have summarized the recent developments in orbital morphogenesis, a temporally precise and morphogenetically intricate process. Understanding this multidimensional process of development in prenatal life, identifying and linking signaling cascades, as well as the regulatory genes linked to existing diseases, may pave the way for advanced molecular diagnostic testing, developing minimally invasive interventions, and the use of progenitor/stem cell and even regenerative therapy.

Fetal Development of the Orbit.

Human prenatal development is divided into an embryonic period and a fetal period. Intense organogenetic activity occurs in the embryonic period of prenatal life, while the fetal period is marked by less intense changes. Knowledge of the embryology of the orbit not only allows insights into how normal variations in the orbital structure arise but also provides an understanding of how congenital deformities occur when normal orbital development goes awry. In order to explore our understanding of the developmental anatomy of the orbit during the fetal period of prenatal life, the authors have summarized the major milestones in orbital morphogenesis, a temporally precise and morphogenetically intricate process. This process can be considered as an anatomic series of complex, well-orchestrated changes in morphology as well as a series of complex biochemical and molecular events that coordinate and control the anatomic development. Identifying and linking signaling pathways and regulatory genes linked with normal orbital morphogenesis is a crucial step to offer patients with chronic or incurable orbital diseases effective treatment options in the future.

Embryologic and Fetal Development of the Eyelid and the Lacrimal Drainage System.

The embryological and fetal morphogenesis of the eyelids and lacrimal drainage system is multifactorial and complex. This protracted process begins in the 5th week of prenatal life and involves a successive series of subtle and tightly regulated morphogenetic events. Major milestones of the embryological and fetal development of the eyelids include the beginning of eyelid formation during the 6th week, eyelid fusion by the 8th week, and the development of eyelid structures beginning in the 9th week (immediately following eyelid fusion), with progression until eyelid separation by the 24th week. After eyelid separation, the eyelids begin to assume their newly developed shape. Around the 32nd week, eyelids are almost fully developed and fully separated but still visibly closed. Key development steps of the lacrimal drainage system include formation of the lacrimal lamina (the primordium of the future lacrimal system) and the lacrimal cord (the primordium of the lacrimal canaliculi) in the 7th week, with canalization starting from the 10th week. During the 10th week, the excretory lacrimal system displays a lumen with a true lacrimal duct that can be distinguished. The epithelium of the lacrimal canaliculi is in contact with the palpebral conjunctival epithelium. The two epithelia form a continuous epithelial lamina. The caudal extreme of the lacrimal duct and the inferior meatal lamina join and the latter begins to cavitate. Understanding this multidimensional process of development in prenatal life, as well as identifying and linking signaling cascades and regulatory genes to existing diseases, may pave the way for developing minimally invasive interventions and scar reducing surgical methods, controlling the spread of malignancies, and the use of progenitor/stem cell and even regenerative therapy.

Valvular system of the lacrimal drainage pathway and the valve of Rosenmüller.

The valves of the lacrimal drainage system are an enigma with a rich eponymous history. The unidirectional flow of tears along with the ultrastructural demonstration of distinctive mucosal folds on the luminal surface has rekindled an interest in them. The first in vivo direct demonstration of the valve of Rosenmüller and its functions has laid to rest some of the controversies of its existence and that of the valve of Huschke. The dynamic assessment of the valve of Rosenmüller has shown a well-defined functional role in the facilitation of unidirectional tear flow. The present mini review describes the embryological aspects, brief overview of the eponymous valves, techniques for their identification along with recent structural and functional aspects of the valve of Rosenmüller.