Psychosocial factors, health behaviors and risk of cancer incidence: Testing interaction and effect modification in an individual participant data meta-analysis.

Depression, anxiety and other psychosocial factors are hypothesized to be involved in cancer development. We examined whether psychosocial factors interact with or modify the effects of health behaviors, such as smoking and alcohol use, in relation to cancer incidence. Two-stage individual participant data meta-analyses were performed based on 22 cohorts of the PSYchosocial factors and CAncer (PSY-CA) study. We examined nine psychosocial factors (depression diagnosis, depression symptoms, anxiety diagnosis, anxiety symptoms, perceived social support, loss events, general distress, neuroticism, relationship status), seven health behaviors/behavior-related factors (smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, body mass index, sedentary behavior, sleep quality, sleep duration) and seven cancer outcomes (overall cancer, smoking-related, alcohol-related, breast, lung, prostate, colorectal). Effects of the psychosocial factor, health behavior and their product term on cancer incidence were estimated using Cox regression. We pooled cohort-specific estimates using multivariate random-effects meta-analyses. Additive and multiplicative interaction/effect modification was examined. This study involved 437,827 participants, 36,961 incident cancer diagnoses, and 4,749,481 person years of follow-up. Out of 744 combinations of psychosocial factors, health behaviors, and cancer outcomes, we found no evidence of interaction. Effect modification was found for some combinations, but there were no clear patterns for any particular factors or outcomes involved. In this first large study to systematically examine potential interaction and effect modification, we found no evidence for psychosocial factors to interact with or modify health behaviors in relation to cancer incidence. The behavioral risk profile for cancer incidence is similar in people with and without psychosocial stress.

The mediating role of health behaviors in the association between depression, anxiety and cancer incidence: an individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Although behavioral mechanisms in the association among depression, anxiety, and cancer are plausible, few studies have empirically studied mediation by health behaviors. We aimed to examine the mediating role of several health behaviors in the associations among depression, anxiety, and the incidence of various cancer types (overall, breast, prostate, lung, colorectal, smoking-related, and alcohol-related cancers). METHODS: Two-stage individual participant data meta-analyses were performed based on 18 cohorts within the Psychosocial Factors and Cancer Incidence consortium that had a measure of depression or anxiety (N = 319 613, cancer incidence = 25 803). Health behaviors included smoking, physical inactivity, alcohol use, body mass index (BMI), sedentary behavior, and sleep duration and quality. In stage one, path-specific regression estimates were obtained in each cohort. In stage two, cohort-specific estimates were pooled using random-effects multivariate meta-analysis, and natural indirect effects (i.e. mediating effects) were calculated as hazard ratios (HRs). RESULTS: Smoking (HRs range 1.04-1.10) and physical inactivity (HRs range 1.01-1.02) significantly mediated the associations among depression, anxiety, and lung cancer. Smoking was also a mediator for smoking-related cancers (HRs range 1.03-1.06). There was mediation by health behaviors, especially smoking, physical inactivity, alcohol use, and a higher BMI, in the associations among depression, anxiety, and overall cancer or other types of cancer, but effects were small (HRs generally below 1.01). CONCLUSIONS: Smoking constitutes a mediating pathway linking depression and anxiety to lung cancer and smoking-related cancers. Our findings underline the importance of smoking cessation interventions for persons with depression or anxiety.

Depression, anxiety, and the risk of cancer: An individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Depression and anxiety have long been hypothesized to be related to an increased cancer risk. Despite the great amount of research that has been conducted, findings are inconclusive. To provide a stronger basis for addressing the associations between depression, anxiety, and the incidence of various cancer types (overall, breast, lung, prostate, colorectal, alcohol-related, and smoking-related cancers), individual participant data (IPD) meta-analyses were performed within the Psychosocial Factors and Cancer Incidence (PSY-CA) consortium. METHODS: The PSY-CA consortium includes data from 18 cohorts with measures of depression or anxiety (up to N = 319,613; cancer incidences, 25,803; person-years of follow-up, 3,254,714). Both symptoms and a diagnosis of depression and anxiety were examined as predictors of future cancer risk. Two-stage IPD meta-analyses were run, first by using Cox regression models in each cohort (stage 1), and then by aggregating the results in random-effects meta-analyses (stage 2). RESULTS: No associations were found between depression or anxiety and overall, breast, prostate, colorectal, and alcohol-related cancers. Depression and anxiety (symptoms and diagnoses) were associated with the incidence of lung cancer and smoking-related cancers (hazard ratios [HRs], 1.06-1.60). However, these associations were substantially attenuated when additionally adjusting for known risk factors including smoking, alcohol use, and body mass index (HRs, 1.04-1.23). CONCLUSIONS: Depression and anxiety are not related to increased risk for most cancer outcomes, except for lung and smoking-related cancers. This study shows that key covariates are likely to explain the relationship between depression, anxiety, and lung and smoking-related cancers. PREREGISTRATION NUMBER: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=157677.

Spiritual care by nurses in curative oncology: a mixed-method study on patients' perspectives and experiences.

AIMS: Spirituality can be important in adjusting to the experience of cancer and its medical treatment. Since nurses have frequent contact with patients, they seem to have a unique role in providing spiritual care. Nurses consider spiritual care important; however, little is known about how patients in a curative setting experience and value spiritual care. Therefore, this study aimed to give insight into patients' experiences with and opinions about spiritual care as provided by nurses in curative cancer care. METHODS: This is a national, multicentre mixed-methods study, combining a quantitative approach using questionnaires (n = 62) and a qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews (n = 61). Nonparametric tests were used for quantitative data, and qualitative data were analysed inductively. FINDINGS: Most patients rarely received spiritual care by nurses. If spiritual care was provided, it mainly consisted of noticing problems and referring to other professionals. This appeared to be dependent on certain 'triggers', such as age. Structural discussions on spirituality with a nurse were experienced rarely. This was explained by, among other factors, the hospital setting. Yet, the majority (79%) of patients found the attention to spirituality sufficient or very good. Furthermore, a majority (58%) viewed spiritual care as a nursing task: nurses should notice spiritual problems and refer to other professionals, though extensively discussing patients' spirituality was neither considered nurses' task nor capability. CONCLUSIONS: Attention to spiritual care in a curative setting, though not so much desired by most patients, should be pursued, because of its importance in performing person-centred nursing care and its positive impact on patients' health. By training nurses in offering spiritual care in proactive and 'nonactive' (accepting) ways, spiritual care could be structurally offered in clinical practice in personalised forms. Since younger and less spiritual patients are not much satisfied with spiritual care by nurses, they need special attention.

Co-morbidity of depression, anxiety and fatigue in cancer patients receiving psychological care.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine (1) subgroups of cancer patients with distinct co-morbidity patterns of depression, anxiety and fatigue; (2) how individuals transitioned between these patterns; and (3) whether socio-demographic, clinical and psychological care characteristics distinguished patients' transitions. METHOD: This naturalistic, longitudinal study focused on 241 cancer patients receiving psycho-oncological care in the Netherlands. Data were collected before initiation of psychological care (T1), 3 months (T2), and 9 months thereafter (T3). Latent transition analysis was performed examining research questions. RESULTS: Three distinct co-morbidity patterns were identified: class 1 ('mood disturbances and fatigue'), class 2 ('mood disturbances') and class 3 ('few symptoms of mood disturbances and fatigue'). Half of those in class 1 remained in this group from T1 to T3, a quarter transitioned to class 2 and another quarter to class 3. Baseline physical symptoms distinguished these transitions: those with more physical symptoms tended to remain stable. Half of patients in class 2 remained stable from T1 to T3, 46% moved into class 3 and 8% into class 1. Baseline physical symptoms and years after cancer diagnosis significantly distinguished these transitions: the 8% moving to class 1 had more physical symptoms and were longer after cancer diagnosis. Most patients in class 3 remained stable from T1 to T3, and predictors of transitions could not be examined. CONCLUSIONS: Three distinct co-morbidity patterns of depression, anxiety and fatigue were identified and exhibited different symptom courses longitudinally. Those with poor physical health tended to report elevated mood disturbances and fatigue during psychological care. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Existential Well-Being: Spirituality or Well-Being?

Measures of spirituality often contain the dimension existential well-being (EWB). However, EWB has been found to overlap with emotional and psychological well-being. Using the Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List (SAIL), we have further investigated the overlap between aspects of spirituality and of well-being among patients with cancer, by determining a) the divergent validity of the subscales of the SAIL compared with a well-being questionnaire and b) the differences in their associations to changes in pain and fatigue, and the occurrence of negative life events. Our findings suggest that a sense of trust that one is able to cope with difficulties of life belongs to the realm of well-being, instead of spirituality. Other aspects, such as a sense of meaning in life, seem more similar to spirituality than to well-being. These results can bring researchers a step further toward constructing "pure" spirituality and well-being measures, which will allow them to investigate the (causal) relationship between these constructs.

Spiritual care by nurses in curative cancer care: Protocol for a national, multicentre, mixed method study.

AIM: To gain insight into the quantity and quality of spiritual care provided by nurses in curative cancer care, from the perspectives of both patients and nurses. BACKGROUND: Cancer causes patients to suffer from diverse symptoms related to their illness. Nurses play an important role in the care for people with cancer. Next to paying attention to physical and psychosocial needs, caring for spiritual needs of patients also belongs to good nursing. Most of the research concerning spirituality and spiritual care in relation to cancer has focused on palliative care. DESIGN: A mixed methods design will be used in two sub-phases. First, we will conduct semi-structured interviews with 72-90 patients coming from nine hospitals. Subsequently, approximately the same number of nurses working on oncology wards of these hospitals will be interviewed. METHODS: We meticulously composed both interview guides so that only near the end of the interview explicit terms like spirituality and spiritual care are explicitly mentioned. Until that point, we will use other words to define the concepts. Next to the interviews, demographics, answers to some statements and several questionnaires will be gathered. Content analysis supported by DEDOOSE will be used to answer the research questions. DISCUSSION: The insight we will gain in this study enables us to compare experiences from the perspective of both patients and nurses. This can also provide us with suggestions for the improvement of nursing care for people with cancer who are treated with curative intent, a topic until now hardly addressed.

A critical analysis of scales to measure the attitude of nurses toward spiritual care and the frequency of spiritual nursing care activities.

Quantitative studies have assessed nurses' attitudes toward and frequency of spiritual care [SC] and which factors are of influence on this attitude and frequency. However, we had doubts about the construct validity of the scales used in these studies. Our objective was to evaluate scales measuring nursing SC. Articles about the development and psychometric evaluation of SC scales have been identified, using, Web of Science, and CINAHL, and evaluated with respect to the psychometric properties and item content of the scales. Item content was evaluated by each of the five authors with respect to the following questions: Does the item (1) reflect a general opinion about SC instead of a personal willingness to offer SC; (2) reflect general psychosocial care instead of specific SC; (3) focus solely on religious care; (4) contain the words 'spiritual' (care/needs/health/strengths, etc.); and (5) contain multiple propositions, or have an unclear meaning? We found eight scales. Psychometric analysis of these scales was often meager and the items of all but one scale suffered from two or more of the five problems described above. This leads us to conclude that many quantitative results in this area are based on findings with questionable scales. Suggestions for improvements are provided.

Subtypes of depression in cancer patients: an empirically driven approach.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to (1) identify subgroups of cancer patients with distinct subtypes of depression before the start of psychological care, (2) examine whether socio-demographic and medical characteristics distinguished these subtypes, and (3) examine whether people with distinct subtypes reported differential courses of depression during psychological care. METHOD: This naturalistic, longitudinal study included cancer patients who sought psychological care at specialized psycho-oncology institutions in the Netherlands. Data were collected before psychological care (T1) and three (T2) and nine (T3) months thereafter. Latent class analysis was performed to identify depression subtypes in 243 patients at T1. RESULTS: Before starting psychological care, three depressive subtypes were identified, differing in severity and type of symptoms. Class 1 (47%) with mild depression reported mostly concentration and sleep problems and fatigue. Class 2 (41%), with slightly higher levels of depression, reported similar concentration and sleep problems and fatigue as class 1, and additionally depressed mood. Class 3 (12%), with severe depression, reported mainly a depressed mood and, to a lesser extent but still elevated, fatigue and concentration problems. None of socio-demographic and medical characteristics significantly distinguished these subtypes. These subtypes significantly predicted the course of depression over time, with class 1 reporting moderate improvements, class 2 large improvements, and class 3 the largest improvements. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate the presence of three subtypes of depression in cancer patients before starting psychological care. Our findings suggest that psychological interventions could be tailored to respond to the specific subtype of depression experienced by each individual.

Trajectories of personal control in cancer patients receiving psychological care.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to (1) identify subgroups of cancer patients with distinct personal control trajectories during psychological care, (2) examine whether socio-demographic, clinical, and psychological care characteristics could distinguish trajectories, and (3) examine differential patterns of psychological symptoms between trajectories. METHODS: This naturalistic study focused on 241 cancer patients receiving psychological care at psycho-oncology institutions. Data were collected before the initiation of psychological care, and 3 and 9 months thereafter. Latent class growth analysis was applied to identify personal control trajectories. RESULTS: Three personal control trajectories were identified: enduring improvement (41%), temporary improvement (50%), and deterioration (9%). Education and baseline physical symptoms distinguished these trajectories. In the whole group, improvements in personal control were associated with improvements in psychological symptoms. Patients at distinct trajectories reported different levels of psychological symptoms, but did not differ in their courses of psychological symptoms. Patients in the enduring and temporary control improvement groups experienced significant psychological symptoms reductions over time, whereas patients in the control deterioration group maintained high psychological symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in personal control seem to depend on initial control level: those who start with the highest control levels show subsequent improvements, whereas those with the lowest control levels show subsequent deterioration.

How Spirituality Helps Cancer Patients with the Adjustment to their Disease.

It has been suggested that spirituality is associated with higher well-being, because it offers social support, improves the relationship with the partner, provides meaning, and reduces self-focus and worry. We performed a qualitative study among ten people with cancer, using the Consensual Qualitative Research method for the analysis of semi-structured interviews. Support was found for the mechanisms of meaning provision and of reduction of self-focus and worries. Participants also mentioned emotion-focused roles of spirituality: Feeling supported by a transcendental confidant, the expression of negative emotions (in prayer), acceptance, allowing feelings of misery, and viewing problems from a distance. There was no mention of a contribution of spirituality to adjustment through improved social support per se or a higher quality of the relationship with the partner. The results of the present study indicate that the role of spirituality in emotion regulation deserves attention in understanding how spirituality helps cancer patients to adjust to their disease.

Stress management training for breast cancer surgery patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the psychological effects of a pre-surgical stress management training (SMT) in cancer patients. METHODS: Stress management training comprised four sessions in total: on 5 days and 1 day pre-surgery and on 2 days and 1 month post-surgery. Patients also received audio CDs with relaxation and coping skills exercises. Patients were randomly assigned to the SMT (N = 34) or a regular care condition (N = 36). Depression, anxiety, quality of life, perception of control, fatigue, pain, sleep problems, and surgery-related somatic symptoms were measured at Day 6 and Day 1 pre-surgery, and Day 2, 5, 30 and 90 post-surgery. RESULTS: Depression and fatigue decreased in the intervention group and increased in the control group, leading to significant group differences at Day 2 (fatigue) and Day 5 post-surgery (fatigue and depression). It also appeared that surgery-related symptoms had increased more in the control group 3 months post-surgery than in the SMT group. No intervention effects were observed for anxiety, pain, and sleep problems. CONCLUSION: The use of a short psychological intervention is effective in reducing depression and fatigue in the post-surgical period, although the effects are of short duration.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy reduces chronic cancer-related fatigue: a treatment study.

INTRODUCTION: About one-third of cancer survivors suffer from severe chronic fatigue. Aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of mindfulness-based cognitive group therapy in reducing severe chronic fatigue in cancer survivors with mixed diagnoses. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Participants (n = 100) were randomly selected from a cohort and allocated to an intervention and a waiting list condition. Analyses were based on 59 participants in the intervention condition and 24 in the waiting-list condition. Fatigue severity (Checklist Individual Strength), functional impairment (Sickness Impact Profile) and well being (Health and Disease-Inventory) were assessed before and after the 9-week intervention. The intervention group had a follow-up 6 months following the intervention. RESULTS: At post-treatment measurement the proportion of clinically improved participants was 30%, versus 4% in the waiting list condition (χ(2) (1) = 6.71; p = 0.007). The mean fatigue score at post-measurement was significantly lower in the intervention group than in the waiting list group corrected for pre-treatment level of fatigue. The mean well-being score at post-measurement was significantly higher in the intervention group than in the waiting list group corrected for pre-treatment level of well-being. The treatment effect was maintained at 6-month follow-up. No difference between the two conditions was found in functional impairment. DISCUSSION: Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy is an effective treatment for chronic cancer-related fatigue.

Measuring spirituality as a universal human experience: development of the Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List (SAIL).

Many cancer patients experience spirituality as highly supportive while coping with their disease. Most research as well as most questionnaires in this field is religious orientated. The Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List was developed to enable research on spirituality among religious and nonreligious people. It consists of seven subscales that measure connectedness with oneself, with others and nature, and with the transcendent. Among a student, a healthy population, a healthy interested, a curative cancer, and a palliative cancer sample factorial, convergent and discriminant validity were demonstrated, as well as adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability.

Measuring spirituality as a universal human experience: a review of spirituality questionnaires.

Spirituality is an important theme in health research, since a spiritual orientation can help people to cope with the consequences of a serious disease. Knowledge on the role of spirituality is, however, limited, as most research is based on measures of religiosity rather than spirituality. A questionnaire that transcends specific beliefs is a prerequisite for quantifying the importance of spirituality among people who adhere to a religion or none at all. In this review, we discuss ten questionnaires that address spirituality as a universal human experience. Questionnaires are evaluated with regard to psychometric properties, item formulation and confusion with well-being and distress. Although none of the questionnaires fulfilled all the criteria, the multidimensional Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire is promising.

Trajectories of fatigue in cancer patients during psychological care.

OBJECTIVE: Psycho-oncological institutions offer specialized care for cancer patients. Little is known how this care might impact fatigue. This study aimed to identify fatigue trajectories during psychological care, examined factors distinguishing these trajectories and predicted fatigue severity after nine months of psychological care. DESIGN: Naturalistic, longitudinal study of 238 cancer patients receiving psycho-oncological care in the Netherlands. Data were collected before initiation of psychological care (T1) and three (T2) and nine months (T3) afterwards. Latent class growth analysis, repeated measure analyses (RMA) and linear regression analysis were performed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Fatigue severity: Checklist Individual Strength. RESULTS: Three fatigue trajectories were identified: high- (30%), moderate- (62%) and low-level fatigue (8%). While statistically significant decreases in fatigue were found, this decrease was not clinically relevant. RMA showed main effects for time for fatigue trajectories on depression, anxiety, personal control and illness cognitions. Fatigue severity and physical symptoms at T1, but not demographic or clinical factors, were predictive of fatigue severity at T3. CONCLUSIONS: Fatigue is very common during psycho-oncological care, and notably not clinically improving. As symptoms of fatigue, depression, anxiety and physical symptoms often cluster, supplementary fatigue treatment should be considered when it is decided to treat other symptoms first.

Problems addressed during psycho-oncological therapy: a pilot study.

Therapists working at the eight psycho-oncological centers in the Netherlands (N = 43) were presented a list of 15 problems often encountered during therapy with cancer patients. The therapists were asked to indicate the predominant psychological problems they had dealt with during their five most recently completed interventions. The authors received complete answers from 37 therapists (86%). Anxiety and depression were the two predominant problems most often encountered by therapists during therapy (31% and 29%, respectively). Other problems included relationship problems (23%) and saying farewell to life (21%). In about one half of the cancer patients anxiety and/or depression were not the focus during their therapy.