Pleiotropic roles of Clostridium difficile sin locus.

Clostridium difficile is the primary cause of nosocomial diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. It produces dormant spores, which serve as an infectious vehicle responsible for transmission of the disease and persistence of the organism in the environment. In Bacillus subtilis, the sin locus coding SinR (113 aa) and SinI (57 aa) is responsible for sporulation inhibition. In B. subtilis, SinR mainly acts as a repressor of its target genes to control sporulation, biofilm formation, and autolysis. SinI is an inhibitor of SinR, so their interaction determines whether SinR can inhibit its target gene expression. The C. difficile genome carries two sinR homologs in the operon that we named sinR and sinR', coding for SinR (112 aa) and SinR' (105 aa), respectively. In this study, we constructed and characterized sin locus mutants in two different C. difficile strains R20291 and JIR8094, to decipher the locus's role in C. difficile physiology. Transcriptome analysis of the sinRR' mutants revealed their pleiotropic roles in controlling several pathways including sporulation, toxin production, and motility in C. difficile. Through various genetic and biochemical experiments, we have shown that SinR can regulate transcription of key regulators in these pathways, which includes sigD, spo0A, and codY. We have found that SinR' acts as an antagonist to SinR by blocking its repressor activity. Using a hamster model, we have also demonstrated that the sin locus is needed for successful C. difficile infection. This study reveals the sin locus as a central link that connects the gene regulatory networks of sporulation, toxin production, and motility; three key pathways that are important for C. difficile pathogenesis.

Clostridioides difficile SinR' regulates toxin, sporulation and motility through protein-protein interaction with SinR.

Clostridioides difficile is a Gram-positive, anaerobic bacterium. It is known that C. difficile is one of the major causes of antibiotic associated diarrhea. The enhanced antibiotic resistance observed in C. difficile is the result of highly resistant spores produced by the bacterium. In Bacillus subtilis, the sin operon is involved in sporulation inhibition. Two proteins coded within this operon, SinR and SinI, have an antagonistic relationship; SinR acts as an inhibitor to sporulation whereas SinI represses the activity of SinR, thus allowing the bacterium to sporulate. In a previous study, we examined the sin locus in C. difficile and named the two genes associated with this operon sinR and sinR', analogous to sinR and sinI in B. subtilis, respectively. We have shown that SinR and SinR' have pleiotropic roles in pathogenesis pathways and interact antagonistically with each other. Unlike B. subtilis SinI, SinR' in C. difficile carries two domains: the HTH domain and the Multimerization Domain (MD). In this study, we first performed a GST Pull-down experiment to determine the domain within SinR' that interacts with SinR. Second, the effect of these two domains on three phenotypes; sporulation, motility, and toxin production was examined. The findings of this study confirmed the prediction that the Multimerization Domain (MD) of SinR' is responsible for the interaction between SinR and SinR'. It was also discovered that SinR' regulates sporulation, toxin production and motility primarily by inhibiting SinR activity through the Multimerization Domain (MD).

Identification and characterization of Clostridium sordellii toxin gene regulator.

Toxigenic Clostridium sordellii causes uncommon but highly lethal infections in humans and animals. Recently, an increased incidence of C. sordellii infections has been reported in women undergoing obstetric interventions. Pathogenic strains of C. sordellii produce numerous virulence factors, including sordellilysin, phospholipase, neuraminidase, and two large clostridial glucosylating toxins, TcsL and TcsH. Recent studies have demonstrated that TcsL toxin is an essential virulence factor for the pathogenicity of C. sordellii. In this study, we identified and characterized TcsR as the toxin gene (tcsL) regulator in C. sordellii. High-throughput sequencing of two C. sordellii strains revealed that tcsR lies within a genomic region that encodes TcsL, TcsH, and TcsE, a putative holin. By using ClosTron technology, we inactivated the tcsR gene in strain ATCC 9714. Toxin production and tcsL transcription were decreased in the tcsR mutant strain. However, the complemented tcsR mutant produced large amounts of toxins, similar to the parental strain. Expression of the Clostridium difficile toxin gene regulator tcdR also restored toxin production to the C. sordellii tcsR mutant, showing that these sigma factors are functionally interchangeable.

Correction: Importance of Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GDH) in Clostridium difficile Colonization In Vivo.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160107.].

Importance of Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GDH) in Clostridium difficile Colonization In Vivo.

Clostridium difficile is the principal cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Major metabolic requirements for colonization and expansion of C. difficile after microbiota disturbance have not been fully determined. In this study, we show that glutamate utilization is important for C. difficile to establish itself in the animal gut. When the gluD gene, which codes for glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), was disrupted, the mutant C. difficile was unable to colonize and cause disease in a hamster model. Further, from the complementation experiment it appears that extracellular GDH may be playing a role in promoting C. difficile colonization and disease progression. Quantification of free amino acids in the hamster gut during C. difficile infection showed that glutamate is among preferred amino acids utilized by C. difficile during its expansion. This study provides evidence of the importance of glutamate metabolism for C. difficile pathogenesis.