Urinary Angiotensinogen Displays Sexual Dimorphism in Non-Diabetic Humans and Mice with Overweight.

Increased body weight (BW) induces inappropriate renin-angiotensin system (RAS) activation. The activation of the intrarenal RAS is associated with increased urinary angiotensinogen (uAGT), blood pressure (BP), and kidney damage. Here, we examined uAGT excretion levels in young non-diabetic human subjects with overweight (OW) and non-diabetic mice with high-fat diet (HFD)-induced OW. Human subjects (women and men; 20-28 years old) included two groups: (a) overweight (OW, n = 17, BMI ≥ 25); and (b) controls (normal weight (NW; n = 26, BMI ≤ 25). In these subjects, we measured BP, albuminuria, and protein levels of uAGT by ELISA adjusted by urinary creatinine (expressed by uAGT/uCrea). Mice (female and male C57BL/6J mice, 8 ± 2 weeks of age) also included two groups: HFD or normal fat diet (NFD) fed for 8 weeks. We measured BW, fasting blood glucose (FBG), BP by telemetry, albuminuria, and uAGT by ELISA. In humans: (i) no significant changes were observed in BP, albuminuria, and FBG when comparing NW and OW subjects; (ii) multivariate logistic regression analysis of independent predictors related to uAGT/uCrea levels demonstrated a strong association between uAGT and overweight; (iii) urinary reactive oxygen species (ROS) were augmented in men and women with OW; (iv) the uAGT/uCrea ratio was higher in men with OW. However, the uAGT/uCrea values were lower in women even with OW. In mice: (i) males fed an HFD for 8 weeks became OW while females did not; (ii) no changes were observed either in FBG, BP, or albuminuria; (iii) kidney ROS were augmented in OW male mice after 28 weeks but not in females; (iv) OW male mice showed augmented excretion of uAGT but this was undetectable in females fed either NFD or HFD. In humans and mice who are OW, the urinary excretion of AGT differs between males and females and overcomes overt albuminuria.

OXGR1-Dependent (Pro)Renin Receptor Upregulation in Collecting Ducts of the Clipped Kidney Contributes to Na+ Balance in Goldblatt Hypertensive Mice.

The two-kidney, one-clip (2K1C) Goldblatt rodent model elicits a reduction in renal blood flow (RBF) in the clipped kidney (CK). The reduced RBF and oxygen bio-ability causes the accumulation of the tricarboxylic cycle intermediary, α-ketoglutarate, which activates the oxoglutarate receptor-1 (OXGR1). In the kidney, OXGR1 is abundantly expressed in intercalated cells (ICs) of the collecting duct (CD), thus contributing to sodium transport and electrolyte balance. The (pro)renin receptor (PRR), a member of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), is a key regulator of sodium reabsorption and blood pressure (BP) that is expressed in ICs. The PRR is upregulated in 2K1C rats. Here, we tested the hypothesis that chronic reduction in RBF in the CK leads to OXGR1-dependent PRR upregulation in the CD and alters sodium balance and BP in 2K1C mice. To determine the role of OXGR1 in regulating the PRR in the CDs during renovascular hypertension, we performed 2K1C Goldblatt surgery (clip = 0.13 mm internal gap, 14 days) in two groups of male mice: (1) mice treated with Montelukast (OXGR1 antagonist; 5 mg/Kg/day); (2) OXGR1-/- knockout mice. Wild-type and sham-operated mice were used as controls. After 14 days, 2K1C mice showed increased systolic BP (SBP) (108 ± 11 vs. control 82 ± 5 mmHg, p < 0.01) and a lower natriuretic response after the saline challenge test. The CK group showed upregulation of erythropoietin, augmented α-ketoglutarate, and increased PRR expression in the renal medulla. The CK of OXGR1 knockout mice and mice subjected to the OXGR1 antagonist elicited impaired PRR upregulation, attenuated SBP, and better natriuretic responses. In 2K1C mice, the effect of reduced RBF on the OXGR1-dependent PRR upregulation in the CK may contribute to the anti-natriuretic and increased SBP responses.

Elevated soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor is associated with renal dysfunction in a Chlorocebus atheiops COVID-19 model.

Increases of soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) were measured in both urine and plasma of a Chlorocebus aethiops (African green monkey; AGM) mucosal infected with SARS-CoV-2. The data indicate that elevated suPAR may be associated with renal dysfunction and pathology in the context of COVID-19.

MicroRNAs and obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction: key paradigms in molecular therapy.

The endothelium plays a pivotal role in maintaining vascular health. Obesity is a global epidemic that has seen dramatic increases in both adult and pediatric populations. Obesity perturbs the integrity of normal endothelium, leading to endothelial dysfunction which predisposes the patient to cardiovascular diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules that play important roles in a variety of cellular processes such as differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, and stress response; their alteration contributes to the development of many pathologies including obesity. Mediators of obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction include altered endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), oxidative stress, autophagy machinery and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. All of these factors have been shown to be either directly or indirectly caused by gene regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive description of the therapeutic potential of miRNAs to treat obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction. This may lead to the identification of new targets for interventions that may prevent or delay the development of obesity-related cardiovascular disease.

Augmented reality-based learning for the comprehension of cardiac physiology in undergraduate biomedical students.

The integrated mechanisms of heart contraction are some of the most complex processes for undergraduate biomedical students to understand. Visual models have the potential to enhance learning environments by providing visual representations of complex mechanisms. Despite their benefits, the use of visual models in undergraduate classrooms is still limited. For this study, we tested the effect of a learning sequence of activities related to the cardiac cycle using an augmented reality (AR) application for smartphones and tablets. We were interested in understanding the ability of students to draw and label figures reflecting cardiac function after experiencing the learning sequence using AR. Undergraduate students of the biomedical sciences (control n = 43, experimental n = 58) were enrolled in the course, and their drawings were evaluated using multiple levels of complexity (1 = basic to 5 = complex) through a pre-/posttest structure that included a learning sequence based on AR in the experimental group and regular lecture-based activities in the control group. The complexity of students' drawings was evaluated on the anatomical, physiological, and molecular aspects of heart contraction. We used Cohen's kappa index for interrater reliability when determining the complexity of drawings. Control and experimental groups showed no differences in baseline knowledge (preexamination quiz). The students who experienced the AR activities showed an increase in the complexity of representation levels in posttest results and also showed a significant difference in scores for the final exam in the heart physiology course. Our results indicate that using AR enhances the comprehension of anatomical and physiological concepts of the cardiac cycle for undergraduate biomedical students.

The prorenin receptor in the cardiovascular system and beyond.

Since the prorenin receptor (PRR) was first reported, its physiological role in many cellular processes has been under intense scrutiny. The PRR is currently recognized as a multifunctional receptor with major roles as an accessory protein of the vacuolar-type H+-ATPase and as an intermediary in the Wnt signaling pathway. As a member of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), the PRR has demonstrated to be of relevance in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) because it can activate prorenin and enhance the enzymatic activity of renin, thus promoting angiotensin II formation. Indeed, there is an association between PRR gene polymorphisms and CVD. Independent of angiotensin II, the activation of the PRR further stimulates intracellular signals linked to fibrosis. Studies using tissues and cells from a variety of organs and systems have supported its roles in multiple functions, although some remain controversial. In the brain, the PRR appears to be involved in the central regulation of blood pressure via activation of RAS- and non-RAS-dependent mechanisms. In the heart, the PRR promotes atrial structural and electrical remodeling. Nonetheless, animals overexpressing the PRR do not exhibit cardiac injury. In the kidney, the PRR is involved in the development of ureteric bud branching, urine concentration, and regulation of blood pressure. There is great interest in the PRR contributions to T cell homeostasis and to the development of visceral and brown fat. In this mini-review, we discuss the evidence for the pathophysiological roles of the PRR with emphasis in CVD.

PGE2 upregulates renin through E-prostanoid receptor 1 via PKC/cAMP/CREB pathway in M-1 cells.

During the early phase of ANG II-dependent hypertension, tubular PGE2 is increased. Renin synthesis and secretion in the collecting duct (CD) are upregulated by ANG II, contributing to further intratubular ANG II formation. However, what happens first and whether the triggering mechanism is independent of tubular ANG II remain unknown. PGE2 stimulates renin synthesis in juxtaglomerular cells via E-prostanoid (EP) receptors through the cAMP/cAMP-responsive element-binding (CREB) pathway. EP receptors are also expressed in the CD. Here, we tested the hypothesis that renin is upregulated by PGE2 in CD cells. The M-1 CD cell line expressed EP1, EP3, and EP4 but not EP2. Dose-response experiments, in the presence of ANG II type 1 receptor blockade with candesartan, demonstrated that 10-6 M PGE2 maximally increases renin mRNA (approximately 4-fold) and prorenin/renin protein levels (approximately 2-fold). This response was prevented by micromolar doses of SC-19220 (EP1 antagonist), attenuated by the EP4 antagonist, L-161982, and exacerbated by the highly selective EP3 antagonist, L-798106 (~10-fold increase). To evaluate further the signaling pathway involved, we used the PKC inhibitor calphostin C and transfections with PKCα dominant negative. Both strategies blunted the PGE2-induced increases in cAMP levels, CREB phosphorylation, and augmentation of renin. Knockdown of the EP1 receptor and CREB also prevented renin upregulation. These results indicate that PGE2 increases CD renin expression through the EP1 receptor via the PKC/cAMP/CREB pathway. Therefore, we conclude that during the early stages of ANG II-dependent hypertension, there is augmentation of PGE2 that stimulates renin in the CD, resulting in increased tubular ANG II formation and further stimulation of renin.

Collecting duct prorenin receptor knockout reduces renal function, increases sodium excretion, and mitigates renal responses in ANG II-induced hypertensive mice.

Augmented intratubular angiotensin (ANG) II is a key determinant of enhanced distal Na+ reabsorption via activation of epithelial Na+ channels (ENaC) and other transporters, which leads to the development of high blood pressure (BP). In ANG II-induced hypertension, there is increased expression of the prorenin receptor (PRR) in the collecting duct (CD), which has been implicated in the stimulation of the sodium transporters and resultant hypertension. The impact of PRR deletion along the nephron on BP regulation and Na+ handling remains controversial. In the present study, we investigate the role of PRR in the regulation of renal function and BP by using a mouse model with specific deletion of PRR in the CD (CDPRR-KO). At basal conditions, CDPRR-KO mice had decreased renal function and lower systolic BP associated with higher fractional Na+ excretion and lower ANG II levels in urine. After 14 days of ANG II infusion (400 ng·kg-1·min-1), the increases in systolic BP and diastolic BP were mitigated in CDPRR-KO mice. CDPRR-KO mice had lower abundance of cleaved αENaC and γENaC, as well as lower ANG II and renin content in urine compared with wild-type mice. In isolated CD from CDPRR-KO mice, patch-clamp studies demonstrated that ANG II-dependent stimulation of ENaC activity was reduced because of fewer active channels and lower open probability. These data indicate that CD PRR contributes to renal function and BP responses during chronic ANG II infusion by enhancing renin activity, increasing ANG II, and activating ENaC in the distal nephron segments.

Role of Collecting Duct Renin in the Pathogenesis of Hypertension.

The presence of renin production by the principal cells of the collecting duct has opened new perspectives for the regulation of intrarenal angiotensin II (Ang II). Angiotensinogen (AGT) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) are present in the tubular fluid coming from the proximal tubule and collecting duct. All the components needed for Ang II formation are present along the nephron, and much is known about the mechanisms regulating renin in juxtaglomerular cells (JG); however, those in the collecting duct remain unclear. Ang II suppresses renin via protein kinase C (PKC) and calcium (Ca2+) in JG cells, but in the principal cells, Ang II increases renin synthesis and release through a pathophysiological mechanism that increases further intratubular Ang II de novo formation to enhance distal Na + reabsorption. Transgenic mice overexpressing renin in the collecting duct demonstrate the role of collecting duct renin in the development of hypertension. The story became even more interesting after the discovery of a specific receptor for renin and prorenin: the prorenin receptor ((P)RR), which enhances renin activity and fully activates prorenin. The interactions between (P)RR and prorenin/renin may further increase intratubular Ang II levels. In addition to Ang II, other mechanisms have been described in the regulation of renin in the collecting duct, including vasopressin (AVP), bradykinin (BK), and prostaglandins. Current active investigations are aimed at elucidating the mechanisms regulating renin in the distal nephron segments and understand its role in the pathogenesis of hypertension.

(Pro)renin receptor activation increases profibrotic markers and fibroblast-like phenotype through MAPK-dependent ROS formation in mouse renal collecting duct cells.

Recent studies suggested that activation of the PRR upregulates profibrotic markers through reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation; however, the exact mechanisms have not been investigated in CD cells. We hypothesized that activation of the PRR increases the expression of profibrotic markers through MAPK-dependent ROS formation in CD cells. Mouse renal CD cell line (M-1) was treated with recombinant prorenin plus ROS or MAPK inhibitors and PRR-shRNA to evaluate their effect on the expression of profibrotic markers. PRR immunostaining revealed plasma membrane and intracellular localization. Recombinant prorenin increases ROS formation (6.0 ± 0.5 vs 3.9 ± 0.1 nmol/L DCF/µg total protein, P < .05) and expression of profibrotic markers CTGF (149 ± 12%, P < .05), α-SMA (160 ± 20%, P < .05), and PAI-I (153 ± 13%, P < .05) at 10-8  mol/L. Recombinant prorenin-induced phospho ERK 1/2 (p44 and p42) at 10-8 and 10-6  mol/L after 20 minutes. Prorenin-dependent ROS formation and augmentation of profibrotic factors were blunted by ROS scavengers (trolox, p-coumaric acid, ascorbic acid), the MEK inhibitor PD98059 and PRR transfections with PRR-shRNA. No effects were observed in the presence of antioxidants alone. Prorenin-induced upregulation of collagen I and fibronectin was blunted by ROS scavenging or MEK inhibition independently. PRR-shRNA partially prevented this induction. After 24 hours prorenin treatment M-1 cells undergo to epithelial-mesenchymal transition phenotype, however MEK inhibitor PD98059 and PRR knockdown prevented this effect. These results suggest that PRR might have a significant role in tubular damage during conditions of high prorenin-renin secretion in the CD.

Vasopressin/V2 receptor stimulates renin synthesis in the collecting duct.

Renin is synthesized in the principal cells of the collecting duct (CD), and its production is increased via cAMP in angiotensin (ANG) II-dependent hypertension, despite suppression of juxtaglomerular (JG) renin. Vasopressin, one of the effector hormones of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) via the type 2-receptor (V2R), activates the cAMP/PKA/cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) pathway and aquaporin-2 expression in principal cells of the CD. Accordingly, we hypothesized that activation of V2R increases renin synthesis via PKA/CREB, independently of ANG II type 1 (AT1) receptor activation in CD cells. Desmopressin (DDAVP; 10(-6) M), a selective V2R agonist, increased renin mRNA (∼3-fold), prorenin (∼1.5-fold), and renin (∼2-fold) in cell lysates and cell culture media in the M-1 CD cell line. Cotreatment with DDAVP+H89 (PKA inhibitor) or CREB short hairpin (sh) RNA prevented this response. H89 also blunted DDAVP-induced CREB phosphorylation and nuclear localization. In 48-h water-deprived (WD) mice, prorenin-renin protein levels were increased in the renal inner medulla (∼1.4- and 1.8-fold). In WD mice treated with an ACE inhibitor plus AT1 receptor blockade, renin mRNA and prorenin protein levels were still higher than controls, while renin protein content was not changed. In M-1 cells, ANG II or DDAVP increased prorenin-renin protein levels; however, there were no further increases by combined treatment. These results indicate that in the CD the activation of the V2R stimulates renin synthesis via the PKA/CREB pathway independently of RAS, suggesting a critical role for vasopressin in the regulation of renin in the CD.

Angiotensin II increases fibronectin and collagen I through the ß-catenin-dependent signaling in mouse collecting duct cells.

The contribution of angiotensin II (ANG II) to renal and tubular fibrosis has been widely reported. Recent studies have shown that collecting duct cells can undergo mesenchymal transition suggesting that collecting duct cells are involved in interstitial fibrosis. The Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway plays an essential role in development, organogenesis, and tissue homeostasis; however, the dysregulation of this pathway has been linked to fibrosis. In this study, we investigated whether AT1 receptor activation induces the expression of fibronectin and collagen I via the ß-catenin pathway in mouse collecting duct cell line M-1. ANG II (10(-7) M) treatment in M-1 cells increased mRNA, protein levels of fibronectin and collagen I, the ß-catenin target genes (cyclin D1 and c-myc), and the myofibroblast phenotype. These effects were prevented by candesartan, an AT1 receptor blocker. Inhibition of the ß-catenin degradation with pyrvinium pamoate (pyr; 10(-9) M) prevented the ANG II-induced expression of fibronectin, collagen I, and ß-catenin target genes. ANG II treatment promoted the accumulation of ß-catenin protein in a time-dependent manner. Because phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK-3ß) inhibits ß-catenin degradation, we further evaluated the effects of ANG II and ANG II plus pyr on p-ser9-GSK-3ß levels. ANG II-dependent upregulation of ß-catenin protein levels was correlated with GSK-3ß phosphorylation. These effects were prevented by pyr. Our data indicate that in M-1 collecting duct cells, the ß-catenin pathway mediates the stimulation of fibronectin and collagen I in response to AT1 receptor activation.

PKC-α-dependent augmentation of cAMP and CREB phosphorylation mediates the angiotensin II stimulation of renin in the collecting duct.

In contrast to the negative feedback of angiotensin II (ANG II) on juxtaglomerular renin, ANG II stimulates renin in the principal cells of the collecting duct (CD) in rats and mice via ANG II type 1 (AT1R) receptor, independently of blood pressure. In vitro data indicate that CD renin is augmented by AT1R activation through protein kinase C (PKC), but the exact mechanisms are unknown. We hypothesize that ANG II stimulates CD renin synthesis through AT1R via PKC and the subsequent activation of cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway. In M-1 cells, ANG II increased cAMP, renin mRNA (3.5-fold), prorenin, and renin proteins, as well as renin activity in culture media (2-fold). These effects were prevented by PKC inhibition with calphostin C, PKC-α dominant negative, and by PKA inhibition. Forskolin-induced increases in cAMP and renin expression were prevented by calphostin C. PKC inhibition and Ca2+ depletion impaired ANG II-mediated CREB phosphorylation and upregulation of renin. Adenylate cyclase 6 (AC) siRNA remarkably attenuated the ANG II-dependent upregulation of renin mRNA. Physiological activation of AC with vasopressin increased renin expression in M-1 cells. The results suggest that the ANG II-dependent upregulation of renin in the CD depends on PKC-α, which allows the augmentation of cAMP production and activation of PKA/CREB pathway via AC6. This study defines the intracellular signaling pathway involved in the ANG II-mediated stimulation of renin in the CD. This is a novel mechanism responsible for the regulation of local renin-angiotensin system in the distal nephron.

Renin and the (pro)renin receptor in the renal collecting duct: Role in the pathogenesis of hypertension.

The intrarenal renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a critical role in the pathogenesis and progression of hypertension and kidney disease. In angiotensin (Ang) II-dependent hypertension, collecting duct renin synthesis and secretion are stimulated despite suppression of juxtaglomerular (JG) renin. This effect is mediated by the AngII type I receptor (AT1 R), independent of blood pressure. Although the regulation of JG renin has been extensively studied, the mechanisms by which renin is regulated in the collecting duct remain unclear. The augmentation of renin synthesis and activity in the collecting duct may provide a pathway for additional generation of intrarenal and intratubular AngII formation due to the presence of angiotensinogen substrate and angiotensin-converting enzyme in the nephron. The recently described (pro)renin receptor ((P)RR) binds renin or prorenin, enhancing renin activity and fully activating the biologically inactive prorenin peptide. Stimulation of (P)RR also activates intracellular pathways related to fibrosis. Renin and the (P)RR are augmented in renal tissues of AngII-dependent hypertensive rats. However, the functional contribution of the (P)RR to enhanced renin activity in the collecting duct and its contribution to the development of hypertension and kidney disease have not been well elucidated. This review focuses on recent evidence demonstrating the mechanism of renin regulation in the collecting ducts and its interaction with the (P)RR. The data suggest that renin-(P)RR interactions may induce stimulation of intracellular pathways associated with the development of hypertension and kidney disease.

Renal medullary cyclooxygenase-2 and (pro)renin receptor expression during angiotensin II-dependent hypertension.

The (pro)renin receptor [(P)RR] upregulates cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) cells through ERK1/2. Intrarenal COX-2 and (P)RR are upregulated during chronic ANG II infusion. However, the duration of COX-2 and (P)RR upregulation has not been determined. We hypothesized that during the early phase of ANG II-dependent hypertension, membrane-bound (P)RR and COX-2 are augmented in the renal medulla, serving to buffer the hypertensinogenic and vasoconstricting effects of ANG II. In Sprague-Dawley rats infused with ANG II (0.4 µg·min(-1)·kg(-1)), systolic blood pressure (BP) increased by day 7 (162 ± 5 vs. 114 ± 10 mmHg) and continued to increase by day 14 (198 ± 15 vs. 115 ± 13 mmHg). Membrane-bound (P)RR was augmented at day 3 coincident with phospho-ERK1/2 levels, COX-2 expression, and PGE2 in the renal medulla. In contrast, membrane-bound (P)RR was reduced and COX-2 protein levels were not different from controls by day 14. In cultured IMCD cells, ANG II increased secretion of the soluble (P)RR. In anesthetized rats, COX-2 inhibition decreased the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow (RBF) during the early phase of ANG II infusion without altering BP. However, at 14 days of ANG II infusions, COX-2 inhibition decreased mean arterial BP (MABP), RBF, and GFR. Thus, during the early phase of ANG II-dependent hypertension, the increased (P)RR and COX-2 expression in the renal medulla may contribute to attenuate the vasoconstrictor effects of ANG II on renal hemodynamics. In contrast, at 14 days the reductions in RBF and GFR caused by COX-2 inhibition paralleled the reduced MABP, suggesting that vasoconstrictor COX-2 metabolites contribute to ANG II hypertension.

Evolving concepts on regulation and function of renin in distal nephron.

Sustained stimulation of the intrarenal/intratubular renin-angiotensin system in a setting of elevated arterial pressure elicits renal vasoconstriction, increased sodium reabsorption, proliferation, fibrosis, and eventual renal injury. Activation of luminal AT(1) receptors in proximal and distal nephron segments by local Ang II formation stimulates various transport systems. Augmented angiotensinogen (AGT) production by proximal tubule cells increases AGT secretion contributing to increased proximal Ang II levels and leading to spillover of AGT into the distal nephron segments, as reflected by increased urinary AGT excretion. The increased distal delivery of AGT provides substrate for renin, which is expressed in principal cells of the collecting tubule and collecting ducts, and is also stimulated by AT(1) receptor activation. Renin and prorenin are secreted into the tubular lumen and act on the AGT delivered from the proximal tubule to form more Ang I. The catalytic actions of renin and or prorenin may be enhanced by binding to prorenin receptors on the intercalated cells or soluble prorenin receptor secreted into the tubular fluid. There is also increased luminal angiotensin converting enzyme in collecting ducts facilitating Ang II formation leading to stimulation of sodium reabsorption via sodium channel and sodium/chloride co-transporter. Thus, increased collecting duct renin contributes to Ang II-dependent hypertension by augmenting distal nephron intratubular Ang II formation leading to sustained stimulation of sodium reabsorption and progression of hypertension.

Distribution, metabolism, and toxicity of antimony species in wistar rats. A bio-analytical approach.

This work studied the distribution, reactivity, and biological effects of pentavalent or trivalent antimony (Sb(V), Sb(III)) and N-methylglucamine antimonate (NMG-Sb(V)) in Wistar Rats. The expression of fibrosis genes such as α - SMA, PAI-1, and CTGF were determined in Liver, and Kidney tissues. Wistar rats were treated with different concentrations of Sb(V), Sb(III), As(V) and As(III), and MA via intra-peritoneal injections. The results indicated a noteworthy elevation in mRNA levels of plasminogen activator 1 (PAI-1) in the kidneys of rats that were injected. The main accumulation site for Sb(V) was observed to be the liver, from which it is primarily excreted in its reduced form (Sb(III)) through the urine. The generation of Sb(III) in the kidneys has been found to induce damage through the expression of α-SMA and CTGF, and also lead to a higher creatinine clearance compared to As(III).

Protective Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids against Ang- II-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Brain Endothelial Cells: A Potential Role of Heme Oxygenase 2.

OBJECTIVES: Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), the main metabolites released from the gut microbiota, are altered during hypertension and obesity. SCFAs play a beneficial role in the cardiovascular system. However, the effect of SCFAs on cerebrovascular endothelial cells is yet to be uncovered. In this study, we use brain endothelial cells to investigate the in vitro effect of SCFAs on heme oxygenase 2 (HO-2) and mitochondrial function after angiotensin II (Ang-II) treatment. METHODS: Brain human microvascular endothelial cells were treated with Ang-II (500 nM for 24 h) in the presence and absence of an SCFAs cocktail (1 µM; acetate, propionate, and butyrate) and/or HO-2 inhibitor (SnPP 5 µM). At the end of the treatment, HO-2, endothelial markers (p-eNOS and NO production), inflammatory markers (TNFα, NFκB-p50, and -p65), calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial ROS and H2O2, and mitochondrial respiration were determined in all groups of treated cells. KEY RESULTS: Our data showed that SCFAs rescued HO-2 after Ang-II treatment. Additionally, SCFAs rescued Ang-II-induced eNOS reduction and mitochondrial membrane potential impairment and mitochondrial respiration damage. On the other hand, SCFAs reduced Ang-II-induced inflammation, calcium dysregulation, mitochondrial ROS, and H2O2. All of the beneficial effects of SCFAs on endothelial cells and mitochondrial function occurred through HO-2. CONCLUSIONS: SCFAs treatment restored endothelial cells and mitochondrial function following Ang-II-induced oxidative stress. SCFAs exert these beneficial effects by acting on HO-2. Our results are opening the door for more studies to investigate the effect the of SCFAs/HO-2 axis on hypertension and obesity-induced cerebrovascular diseases.

The Beneficial Effect of Lomitapide on the Cardiovascular System in LDLr-/- Mice with Obesity.

OBJECTIVES: Homozygous familial hypercholesteremia (HoFH) is a rare, life-threatening metabolic disease, mainly caused by a mutation in the LDL receptor. If untreated, HoFH causes premature death from acute coronary syndrome. Lomitapide is approved by the FDA as a therapy to lower lipid levels in adult patients with HoFH. Nevertheless, the beneficial effect of lomitapide in HoFH models remains to be defined. In this study, we investigated the effect of lomitapide on cardiovascular function using LDL receptor-knockout mice (LDLr-/-). METHODS: Six-week-old LDLr-/- mice were fed a standard diet (SD) or a high-fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks. Lomitapide (1 mg/Kg/Day) was given by oral gavage for the last 2 weeks in the HFD group. Body weight and composition, lipid profile, blood glucose, and atherosclerotic plaques were measured. Vascular reactivity and markers for endothelial function were determined in conductance arteries (thoracic aorta) and resistance arteries (mesenteric resistance arteries (MRA)). Cytokine levels were measured by using the Mesoscale discovery V-Plex assays. RESULTS: Body weight (47.5 ± 1.5 vs. 40.3 ± 1.8 g), % of fat mass (41.6 ± 1.9% vs. 31.8 ± 1.7%), blood glucose (215.5 ± 21.9 vs. 142.3 ± 7.7 mg/dL), and lipid levels (cholesterol: 600.9 ± 23.6 vs. 451.7 ± 33.4 mg/dL; LDL/VLDL: 250.6 ± 28.9 vs. 161.1 ± 12.24 mg/dL; TG: 299.5 ± 24.1 vs. 194.1 ± 28.1 mg/dL) were significantly decreased, and the % of lean mass (56.5 ± 1.8% vs. 65.2 ± 2.1%) was significantly increased in the HFD group after lomitapide treatment. The atherosclerotic plaque area also decreased in the thoracic aorta (7.9 ± 0.5% vs. 5.7 ± 0.1%). After treatment with lomitapide, the endothelium function of the thoracic aorta (47.7 ± 6.3% vs. 80.7 ± 3.1%) and mesenteric resistance artery (66.4 ± 4.3% vs. 79.5 ± 4.6%) was improved in the group of LDLr-/- mice on HFD. This was correlated with diminished vascular endoplasmic (ER) reticulum stress, oxidative stress, and inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with lomitapide improves cardiovascular function and lipid profile and reduces body weight and inflammatory markers in LDLr-/- mice on HFD.

Increased Renal Medullary NOX-4 in Female but Not Male Mice during the Early Phase of Type 1 Diabetes: Potential Role of ROS in Upregulation of TGF-ß1 and Fibronectin in Collecting Duct Cells.

Chronic diabetes mellitus (DM) can lead to kidney damage associated with increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), proteinuria, and tubular damage. Altered protein expression levels of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1), fibronectin, and renal NADPH oxidase (NOX-4) are associated with the profibrotic phenotype in renal tubular cells. NOX-4 is one of the primary sources of ROS in the diabetic kidney and responsible for the induction of profibrotic factors in collecting duct (CD) cells. The renal medulla is predominantly composed of CDs; in DM, these CD cells are exposed to high glucose (HG) load. Currently there is no published literature describing the expression of these markers in the renal medulla in male and female mice during the early phase of DM, or the role of NOX-4-induced ROS. Our aim was to evaluate changes in transcripts and protein abundances of TGF-ß1, fibronectin, and NOX-4 along with ROS levels in renal medullary tissues from male and female mice during a short period of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 1 DM and the effect of HG in cultured CD cells. CF-1 mice were injected with or without a single dose of STZ (200 mg/kg) and euthanized at day 6. STZ females showed higher expression of fibronectin and TGF-ß1 when compared to control mice of either gender. Interestingly, STZ female mice showed a >30-fold increase on mRNA levels and a 3-fold increase in protein levels of kidney medullary NOX-4. Both male and female STZ mice showed increased intrarenal ROS. In primary cultures of inner medullary CD cells exposed to HG over 48 h, the expression of TGF-ß1, fibronectin, and NOX-4 were augmented. M-1 CD cells exposed to HG showed increased ROS, fibronectin, and TGF-ß1; this effect was prevented by NOX-4 inhibition. Our data suggest that at as early as 6 days of STZ-induced DM, the expression of profibrotic markers TGF-ß1 and fibronectin increases in renal medullary CD cells. Antioxidants mechanisms in male and female in renal medullary tissues seems to be differentially regulated by the actions of NOX-4.