Evolution of the hymenopteran megaradiation.

The Hymenoptera--ants, bees and wasps--represent one of the most successful but least understood insect radiations. We present the first comprehensive molecular study spanning the entire order Hymenoptera. It is based on approximately 7 kb of DNA sequence from 4 gene regions (18S, 28S, COI and EF-1α) for 116 species representing all superfamilies and 23 outgroup taxa from eight orders of Holometabola. Results are drawn from both parsimony and statistical (Bayesian and likelihood) analyses, and from both by-eye and secondary-structure alignments. Our analyses provide the first firm molecular evidence for monophyly of the Vespina (Orussoidea+Apocrita). Within Vespina, our results indicate a sister-group relationship between Ichneumonoidea and Proctotrupomorpha, while the stinging wasps (Aculeata) are monophyletic and nested inside Evaniomorpha. In Proctotrupomorpha, our results provide evidence for a novel core clade of proctotrupoids, and support for the recently proposed Diaprioidea. An unexpected result is the support for monophyly of a clade of wood-boring sawflies (Xiphydrioidea+Siricoidea). As in previous molecular studies, Orussidae remain difficult to place and are either sister group to a monophyletic Apocrita, or the sister group of Stephanidae within Apocrita. Both results support a single origin of parasitism, but the latter would propose a controversial reversal in the evolution of the wasp-waist. Generally our results support earlier hypotheses, primarily based on morphology, for a basal grade of phytophagous families giving rise to a single clade of parasitic Hymenoptera, the Vespina, from which predatory, pollen-feeding, gall-forming and eusocial forms evolved.

The Cannabis Infringement Notice scheme in Western Australia: a review of policy, police and judicial perspectives.

Western Australia (WA) became the fourth Australian jurisdiction to adopt a 'prohibition with civil penalties scheme' for minor cannabis offences when its Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) scheme became law on 22 March 2004. This study examined the attitudes and practices of policy makers, members of the law enforcement and magistracy and other judicial sectors involved in enforcing the new scheme, and their views as to its likely impact on the drug market. As part of the pre--post evaluation of the legislative reforms a sample of 30 police, other criminal justice personnel and policy makers have been qualitatively interviewed. Data were collected both at the pre-implementation stage (March and June 2003) and shortly after the Act became operational (mid-June 2004). The Western Australia Police Service's implementation of the CIN scheme has been extremely professional. However, these early results suggest that while the CIN scheme has been designed to take into account problems with similar schemes elsewhere in Australia, possible problems include: some operational police being unsure about the operation of the scheme; expected savings in police resources will probably be reduced by procedures which require offenders to be taken back to the station rather than issue notices on the spot as intended by the scheme's architects; probable net widening; problems with exercise of police discretion to issue a CIN; and public misunderstanding of the scheme. In the early months of the scheme understanding of the new laws among both police and members of the public was far from perfect. For the system to achieve the outcomes intended by legislators, it is essential that levels of understanding improve. Media and other campaigns to inform the public that cannabis cultivation and use remain illegal, and to warn about risks associated with cannabis use, should be extended. As it will be at least 18 months before the scheme is operationally settled in, the media and others should be cautious about reading too much into police data on numbers of notices issued and on rates of compliance.

A review of the primary types of the Hawaiian stag beetle genus Apterocyclus Waterhouse (Coleoptera, Lucanidae, Lucaninae), with the description of a new species.

The species of the Hawaiian stag beetle genus Apterocyclus Waterhouse (Coleoptera: Lucanidae) are reviewed following an examination of all primary types. Although the continued existence of the species is unknown and some possibly are extinct there are five recently extant species, including one species that is described here as new. The holotypes for all available names are pictured, and synonymies discussed and updated. Lectotypes are designated for Apterocyclus honoluluensis Waterhouse and A. munroi Sharp. A key to species and a revised catalog for the genus are provided.

A molecular phylogeny of the Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera).

Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) are extremely diverse with more than 23,000 species described and over 500,000 species estimated to exist. This is the first comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the superfamily based on a molecular analysis of 18S and 28S ribosomal gene regions for 19 families, 72 subfamilies, 343 genera and 649 species. The 56 outgroups are comprised of Ceraphronoidea and most proctotrupomorph families, including Mymarommatidae. Data alignment and the impact of ambiguous regions are explored using a secondary structure analysis and automated (MAFFT) alignments of the core and pairing regions and regions of ambiguous alignment. Both likelihood and parsimony approaches are used to analyze the data. Overall there is no impact of alignment method, and few but substantial differences between likelihood and parsimony approaches. Monophyly of Chalcidoidea and a sister group relationship between Mymaridae and the remaining Chalcidoidea is strongly supported in all analyses. Either Mymarommatoidea or Diaprioidea are the sister group of Chalcidoidea depending on the analysis. Likelihood analyses place Rotoitidae as the sister group of the remaining Chalcidoidea after Mymaridae, whereas parsimony nests them within Chalcidoidea. Some traditional family groups are supported as monophyletic (Agaonidae, Eucharitidae, Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Leucospidae, Mymaridae, Ormyridae, Signiphoridae, Tanaostigmatidae and Trichogrammatidae). Several other families are paraphyletic (Perilampidae) or polyphyletic (Aphelinidae, Chalcididae, Eupelmidae, Eurytomidae, Pteromalidae, Tetracampidae and Torymidae). Evolutionary scenarios discussed for Chalcidoidea include the evolution of phytophagy, egg parasitism, sternorrhynchan parasitism, hypermetamorphic development and heteronomy.

Molecular phylogenetics and reproductive incompatibility in a complex of cryptic species of aphid parasitoids.

We infer the phylogeny of a complex of cryptic species and populations of parasitic wasps and examine how reproductive incompatibility maps onto the molecular phylogeny. We used four nuclear (28S-D2, ITS1, ITS2, ArgK) and two mitochondrial (COI, COII) gene regions to analyze relationships among populations in the Aphelinus varipes species complex (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) from throughout Eurasia (France, Georgia, Israel, China, Korea and Japan) and from three aphid hosts (Aphis glycines, Diuraphis noxia and Rhopalosiphum padi; Hemiptera: Aphididae). A combined analysis of 21 genotypes of Aphelinus resulted in six most-parsimonious trees, and successive approximations character-weighting selected two of these as best supported by the data. All six gene regions were necessary to fully resolve the relationships among taxa. Four clades within the A. varipes complex were distinguished: (1) Aphelinus kurdjumovi, (2) Aphelinus hordei, (3) Aphelinus atriplicis, Aphelinus varipes, and Aphelinus albipodus, and (4) Aphelinus certus (populations from China, Korea, and Japan). Based on rates of nucleotide substitutions, these clades diverged between 78 and 526 thousand years ago during a period of repeated glaciations in Eurasia. In laboratory crosses, A. kurdjumovi, A. hordei, and A. varipes were reproductively incompatible with one another and all other populations. A. atriplicis was incompatible with these three species, but not with A. certus. The populations of A. certus from China, Japan, and Korea were reproductively compatible with one another but not with the other populations. Thus, with one exception, entities that were phylogenetically distinct were also reproductively incompatible with one another. Our evidence on molecular differentiation and reproductive incompatibility supports recognition of at least five cryptic species in the A. varipes complex. We discuss likely reasons for the high rate of speciation in this complex.