The glass of milk half-empty? Dairy development and nutrition in low and middle income countries.

Dairy products have an exceptionally rich nutrient profile and have long been promoted in high income countries to redress child malnutrition. But given all this potential, and the high burden of undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), why isn't dairy consumption more actively promoted in the developing world? In this review we focus on a broadly defined concept of "dairy development" to include production, trade, marketing, regulation, and demand stimulation. We address three key questions. First, how strong is the evidence on the importance of dairy production and consumption for improving nutrition among young children in LMICs? Second, which regions have the lowest consumption of dairy products? Third, what are the supply- and demand-side challenges that prevent LMICs from expanding dairy consumption? We argue that although more nutrition- and consumer-oriented dairy development interventions have tremendous potential to redress undernutrition in LMICs, the pathways for achieving this development are highly context-specific: LMICs with significant agroecological potential for dairy production primarily require institutional solutions for the complex marketing challenges in perishable milk value chains; lower potential LMICs require consumer-oriented trade and industrial approaches to the sector's development. And all dairy strategies require a stronger focus on cross-cutting issues of nutrition education and demand creation, food safety and quality, gender and inclusiveness, and environmental sustainability and resilience. We conclude our review by emphasizing important areas for research and policy expansion.

Food prices and the wages of the poor: A cost-effective addition to high-frequency food security monitoring.

The affordability of nutritious food for "all people, at all times" is a critically important dimension of food security. Yet surprisingly, timely high-frequency indicators of food affordability are rarely collected in any systematic fashion despite price volatility emerging as major source of food insecurity in the 21st Century. The 2008 global food crisis prompted international agencies to invest heavily in monitoring domestic food prices in low and middle income countries (LMICs). However, food price monitoring is not sufficient for measuring changes in diet affordability; for that, one must also measure changes either in income or in an income proxy. We propose using the wages of unskilled workers as a cheap and sufficiently accurate income proxy, especially for the urban and rural non-farm poor. We first outline alternative measures of "food wage" indices, defined as wages deflated either by consumer food price indices or novel healthy diet cost indices. We then discuss the conceptual strengths and limitations of food wages. Finally, we examine patterns and trends in different types of real food wage series during well-known food price crises in Ethiopia (2008, 2011 and 2022), Sri Lanka (2022) and Myanmar (2022). In all these instances, food wages declined by 20-30%, often in the space of a few months. In Myanmar, the decline in real wages during 2022 closely matches declines in household disposable income. We strongly advocate tracking the wages of the poor as a timely, accurate and cost-effective means of monitoring food affordability for important segments of the world's poor.

A Prepandemic Nutrition-Sensitive Social Protection Program Has Sustained Benefits for Food Security and Diet Diversity in Myanmar during a Severe Economic Crisis.

BACKGROUND: One-third of preschool children in Myanmar were stunted in 2015-2016, and three-quarters of children 6-23 mo had inadequate diet diversity. In response, a large-scale nutrition-sensitive social protection program was implemented over 2016-2019. In 2020, however, Myanmar's economy was hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic and harder still by a military takeover in 2021. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine whether former beneficiaries of this program experienced better food security, food consumption, and diet diversity outcomes in the wake of major economic shocks. METHODS: In a previous cluster-randomized controlled trial conducted over 2016-2019, pregnant women and their children aged <2 y were randomly assigned to either: 1) CASH; 2) CASH + social and behavioral change communication (SBCC); or 3) a control group. Subsamples of these former participants were then resurveyed 10 times from June 2020 to December 2021 during Myanmar's protracted economic crisis. Randomized treatment exposure was used in a regression analysis to test for postprogram impacts on Food Insecurity Experience Scale indicators, household food consumption, and maternal and child diet diversity. We also examined the impacts on household income as a secondary outcome and potential impact pathway. RESULTS: Both intervention arms reported lower food insecurity, more frequent consumption of nutritious foods, and more diverse maternal and child diets compared with households in the control group. However, the improved dietary outcomes were larger for mothers and children exposed to CASH+SBCC compared with CASH, as was their monthly household income. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that a program combining cash transfers with nutrition-related education can yield sustained benefits 1-2 y after the program was completed. This strengthens the evidence to support the expansion and scale-up of nutrition-sensitive social welfare programs to redress chronic malnutrition and enhance nutritional resilience in the face of a severe economic crisis.

Growth in milk consumption and reductions in child stunting: Historical evidence from cross-country panel data.

Agricultural and food policies are increasingly being tasked with doing more to improve the nutritional status of low-income populations, especially reductions in child stunting. Which specific food sectors warrant additional policy attention is less clear, although a growing body of research argues that increased animal-sourced food consumption in general, and increased dairy consumption specifically, can significantly reduce the risks of stunting, as well as deficiencies in micronutrients and high quality protein. However, experimental research on dairy's impacts on child growth in developing countries is very limited, and non-experimental evidence is confined to cross-sectional surveys. In this study we adopt a more macro lens by using a cross-country panel to show that increases in milk consumption over time are associated with large reductions in child stunting even after controlling for important confounding factors. Countries with high rates of stunting should therefore consider nutrition-sensitive strategies to increase dairy consumption among young children through both supply- and demand-side interventions.

Effects of an integrated poultry value chain, nutrition, gender and WASH intervention (SELEVER) on hygiene and child morbidity and anthropometry in Burkina Faso: A secondary outcome analysis of a cluster randomised trial.

Nutrition-sensitive agriculture programmes have the potential to improve child nutrition outcomes, but livestock intensification may pose risks related to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) conditions. We assessed the impact of SELEVER, a nutrition- and gender-sensitive poultry intervention, with and without added WASH focus, on hygiene practices, morbidity and anthropometric indices of nutrition in children aged 2-4 years in Burkina Faso. A 3-year cluster randomised controlled trial was implemented in 120 villages in 60 communes (districts) supported by the SELEVER project. Communes were randomly assigned using restricted randomisation to one of three groups: (1) SELEVER intervention (n = 446 households); (2) SELEVER plus WASH intervention (n = 432 households); and (3) control without intervention (n = 899 households). The study population included women aged 15-49 years with an index child aged 2-4 years. We assessed the effects 1.5-years (WASH substudy) and 3-years (endline) post-intervention on child morbidity and child anthropometry secondary trial outcomes using mixed effects regression models. Participation in intervention activities was low in the SELEVER groups, ranging from 25% at 1.5 years and 10% at endline. At endline, households in the SELEVER groups had higher caregiver knowledge of WASH-livestock risks (∆ = 0.10, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.04-0.16]) and were more likely to keep children separated from poultry (∆ = 0.09, 95% CI [0.03-0.15]) than in the control group. No differences were found for other hygiene practices, child morbidity symptoms or anthropometry indicators. Integrating livestock WASH interventions alongside poultry and nutrition interventions can increase knowledge of livestock-related risks and improve livestock-hygiene-related practices, yet may not be sufficient to improve the morbidity and nutritional status of young children.

Affordability of nutritious diets in rural India.

In 2015-16 some 38% of preschool children in India were stunted, 21% wasted, and more than half of Indian mothers and young children were anemic. Though widely studied, surprisingly little research on malnutrition in India explores the role of diets, particularly the affordability of nutritious diets given low wages and the significant structural problems facing India's agricultural sector. To explore this we used nationally representative rural price and wage data to estimate the least cost means of satisfying India's national dietary guidelines, referred to as the Cost of a Recommended Diet (CoRD), and assessed the affordability of this diet relative to male and female wages for unskilled laborers. Although we find that dietary costs have increased substantially for both men and women, rural wage rates increased more rapidly, implying that nutritious diets became substantially more affordable over time. However, in absolute terms nutritious diets in 2011 were still expensive relative to unskilled wages, constituting approximately 80-90% of female and 50-60% of male daily wages. Overall, we estimate that 63-76% of the rural poor could not afford a recommended diet in 2011. Achieving nutritional security in India requires a much more holistic focus on improving the affordability of the full range of nutritious food groups (not just cereals), a reappraisal of social protection schemes in light of the cost of more complete nutrition, ensuring that economic growth results in sustained income growth for the poor, and more timely and transparent monitoring of food prices, incomes and dietary costs.

Cost and affordability of nutritious diets at retail prices: Evidence from 177 countries.

Many policies and programs aim to bring nutritious diets within reach of the poor. This paper uses retail prices and nutrient composition for 671 foods and beverages to compute the daily cost of essential nutrients required for an active and healthy life in 177 countries around the world. We compare this minimum cost of nutrient adequacy with the subsistence cost of dietary energy and per-capita spending on all goods and services, to identify stylized facts about how diet cost and affordability relate to economic development and nutrition outcomes. On average, the most affordable nutrient adequate diet exceeds the cost of adequate energy by a factor of 2.66, costing US$1.35 per day to meet median requirements of healthy adult women in 2011. Affordability is lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa. The sensitivity of diet costs to each requirement reveals the high cost of staying within acceptable macronutrient ranges, particularly the upper limit for carbohydrates. Among micronutrients, total diet costs are most sensitive to requirements for calcium as well as vitamins A, C, E, B12, folate and riboflavin. On average, about 5% of dietary energy in the least-cost nutrient adequate diets is derived from animal source foods, with small quantities of meat and fish. Over 70% of all animal products in least-cost diets is eggs and dairy, but only in upper-middle and high-income countries. In lower income countries where egg and dairy prices are significantly higher, they are replaced by larger volumes of vegetal foods. When controlling for national income, diet costs are most significantly correlated with rural travel times and rural electrification. These data suggest opportunities for targeted policies and programs that reduce market prices and the cost of nutritious diets, while improving affordability through nutrition assistance, safety nets and higher earnings among low-income households.

Impacts of COVID-19 on agricultural production and food systems in late transforming Southeast Asia: The case of Myanmar.

The objective of this contribution is to report the initial impacts of measures taken to contain the COVID-19 pandemic on Myanmar's agri-food system. Myanmar is one of several late-transforming low-income countries in Southeast Asia where agriculture still plays a large role in rural livelihoods, and where food prices are a key factor affecting nutrition security for poor urban and rural households. Whereas the economic impacts of COVID-19 disruptions on tourism and manufacturing were obvious to policymakers, the impacts on the agri-food system were less evident and often more indirect. This resulted in the rural sector being allocated only a very small share of the government's initial fiscal response to mitigate the economic impacts of COVID-19. To correct this information gap, a suite of phone surveys covering a wide spectrum of actors in the agri-food system were deployed, including farm input suppliers, mechanization service providers, farmers, commodity traders, millers, food retailers and consumers. The surveys were repeated at regular intervals prior to and during the main crop production season which began shortly after nationwide COVID-19 prevention measures were implemented in April. While the results indicate considerable resilience in the agri-food system in response to the initial disruptions, persistent financial stress for a high proportion of households and agri-food system businesses indicate that the road to a full recovery will take time. The experience provides important lessons for strengthening the resilience of the agri-food system, and the livelihoods of households that depend on it.

Stunting and Wasting Among Indian Preschoolers have Moderate but Significant Associations with the Vegetarian Status of their Mothers.

BACKGROUND: India has high rates of child undernutrition and widespread lactovegetarianism. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to examine how nutrition outcomes varied among Indian preschool children in relation to the vegetarian status of their parents. METHODS: The 2015-2016 National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and the 2011-2012 National Sample Survey (NSS) were used to explore associations between parental vegetarian status and child stunting and wasting at ages 0-59 mo and anemia at ages 6-59 mo. In the NFHS, self-reports on usual consumption of foods were used to classify maternal diets, whereas in the NSS lactovegetarianism was defined at the household level. RESULTS: Compared with children of nonvegetarian mothers, children aged 24-59 mo of lactovegetarian mothers were 2.9 percentage points (95% CI: -4.0, -1.9) less likely to be stunted and children aged 6-23 mo were 1.6 points less likely to be wasted (95% CI: -3.0, -0.03), whereas children aged 6-23 mo with vegan mothers were 5.2 points more likely to be stunted (95% CI: 0.1, 9.4). When compared with nonvegetarian households, lactovegetarian households had better socioeconomic status and were more likely to consume dairy frequently. Children in nonvegetarian households consumed nondairy animal-sourced foods (ASFs) with relatively low frequency. The frequency of maternal dairy consumption was significantly associated with lower risks of child stunting and wasting. CONCLUSIONS: Anthropometric outcomes differed by maternal vegetarian status, which is itself strongly associated with socioeconomic position, location, religion, and caste.

The Relative Caloric Prices of Healthy and Unhealthy Foods Differ Systematically across Income Levels and Continents.

BACKGROUND: Relative prices of healthy/unhealthy foods have been implicated in the obesity epidemic, but never extensively quantified across countries or empirically linked to undernutrition. OBJECTIVES: This study compared relative caloric prices (RCPs) for different food categories across 176 countries and ascertained their associations with dietary indicators and nutrition outcomes. METHODS: We converted prices for 657 standardized food products from the 2011 International Comparison Program into caloric prices using USDA Food Composition tables. We classified products into 21 specific food groups. We constructed RCPs as the ratio of the 3 cheapest products in each food group, relative to the weighted cost of a basket of starchy staples. We analyzed RCP differences across World Bank income levels and regions and used cross-country regressions to explore associations with Demographic Health Survey dietary indicators for women 15-49 y old and children 12-23 mo old and with WHO indicators of the under-5 stunting prevalence and adult overweight prevalence. RESULTS: Most noncereal foods were relatively cheap in high-income countries, including sugar- and fat-rich foods. In lower-income countries, healthy foods were generally expensive, especially most animal-sourced foods and fortified infant cereals (FICs). Higher RCPs for a food predict lower consumption among children for 7 of 9 food groups. Higher milk and FIC prices were positively associated with international child stunting patterns: a 1-SD increase in milk prices was associated with a 2.8 percentage point increase in the stunting prevalence. Similarly, a 1-SD increase in soft drink prices was associated with a reduction in the overweight prevalence of ∼3.6 percentage points. CONCLUSIONS: Relative food prices vary systematically across countries and partially explain international differences in the prevalences of undernutrition and overweight adults. Future research should focus on how to alter relative prices to achieve better dietary and nutrition outcomes.

Water, Sanitation, and Child Health: Evidence From Subnational Panel Data in 59 Countries.

Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) investments are widely seen as essential for improving health in early childhood. However, the experimental literature on WASH interventions identifies inconsistent impacts on child health outcomes, with relatively robust impacts on diarrhea and other symptoms of infection but weak and varying impacts on child nutrition. In contrast, observational research exploiting cross-sectional variation in water and sanitation access is much more sanguine, finding strong associations with diarrhea prevalence, mortality, and stunting. In practice, both literatures suffer from significant methodological limitations. Experimental WASH evaluations are often subject to poor compliance, rural bias, and short duration of exposure, while cross-sectional observational evidence may be highly vulnerable to omitted variables bias. To overcome some of the limitations of both literatures, we construct a panel of 442 subnational regions in 59 countries with multiple Demographic Health Surveys. Using this large subnational panel, we implement difference-in-difference regressions that allow us to examine whether longer-term changes in water and sanitation at the subnational level predict improvements in child morbidity, mortality, and nutrition. We find results that are partially consistent with both literatures. Improved water access is statistically insignificantly associated with most outcomes, although water piped into the home predicts reductions in child stunting. Improvements in sanitation predict large reductions in diarrhea prevalence and child mortality but are not associated with changes in stunting or wasting. We estimate that sanitation improvements can account for just under 10 % of the decline in child mortality from 1990 to 2015.

Misreporting Month of Birth: Diagnosis and Implications for Research on Nutrition and Early Childhood in Developing Countries.

A large literature has used children's birthdays to identify exposure to shocks and estimate their impacts on later outcomes. Using height-for-age z scores (HAZ) for more than 990,000 children in 62 countries from 163 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), we show how random errors in birth dates create artifacts in HAZ that can be used to diagnose the extent of age misreporting. The most important artifact is an upward gradient in HAZ by recorded month of birth (MOB) from start to end of calendar years, resulting in a large HAZ differential between December- and January-born children of -0.32 HAZ points. We observe a second artifact associated with round ages, with a downward gradient in HAZ by recorded age in months, and then an upward step after reaching ages 2, 3, and 4. These artifacts have previously been interpreted as actual health shocks. We show that they are not related to agroclimatic conditions but are instead linked to the type of calendar used and arise mainly when enumerators do not see the child's birth registration cards. We explain the size of the December-January gap through simulation in which 11 % of children have their birth date replaced by a random month. We find a minor impact on the average stunting rate but a larger impact in specific error-prone surveys. We further show how misreporting MOB causes attenuation bias when MOB is used for identification of shock exposure as well as systematic bias in the impact on HAZ of events that occur early or late in each calendar year.

Rural Food Markets and Child Nutrition.

Child dietary diversity is poor in much of rural Africa and developing Asia, prompting significant efforts to leverage agriculture to improve diets. However, growing recognition that even very poor rural households rely on markets to satisfy their demand for nutrient-rich non-staple foods warrants a much better understanding of how rural markets vary in their diversity, competitiveness, frequency and food affordability, and how such characteristics are associated with diets. This article addresses these questions using data from rural Ethiopia. Deploying a novel market survey in conjunction with an information-rich household survey, we find that children in proximity to markets that sell more non-staple food groups have more diverse diets. However, the association is small in absolute terms; moving from three non-staple food groups in the market to six is associated with an increase in the number of non-staple food groups consumed by ˜0.27 and the likelihood of consumption of any non-staple food group by 10 percentage points. These associations are similar in magnitude to those de-scribing the relationship between dietary diversity and household production diversity; moreover, for some food groups, notably dairy, we find that household and community production of that food is especially important. These modest associations may reflect several specific features of our sample which is situated in very poor, food-insecure localities where even the relatively better off are poor in absolute terms and where, by international standards, relative prices for non-staple foods are very high.

First foods: Diet quality among infants aged 6-23 months in 42 countries.

Diet quality is closely linked to child growth and development, especially among infants aged 6-23 months who need to complement breastmilk with the gradual introduction of nutrient-rich solid foods. This paper links Demographic and Health Survey data on infant feeding to household and environmental factors for 76,641 children in 42 low- and middle-income countries surveyed in 2006-2013, providing novel stylized facts about diets in early childhood. Multivariate regressions examine the associations of household socioeconomic characteristics and community level indicators of climate and infrastructure with dietary diversity scores (DDS). Results show strong support for an infant-feeding version of Bennett's Law, as wealthier households introduce more diverse foods at earlier ages, with additional positive effects of parental education, local infrastructure and more temperate agro-climatic conditions. Associations with consumption of specific nutrient-dense foods are less consistent. Our findings imply that while income growth is indeed an important driver of diversification, there are strong grounds to also invest heavily in women's education and food environments to improve diet quality, while addressing the impacts of climate change on livelihoods and food systems. These results reveal systematic patterns in how first foods vary across developing countries, pointing to new opportunities for research towards nutrition-smart policies to improve children's diets.

Poultry husbandry, water, sanitation, and hygiene practices, and child anthropometry in rural Burkina Faso.

Poultry production in low income countries provides households with nutrient-rich meat and egg products, as well as cash income. However, traditional production systems present potential health and nutrition risks because poultry scavenging around household compounds may increase children's exposure to livestock-related pathogens. Data from a cross-sectional survey were analysed to examine associations between poultry, water, sanitation, and hygiene practices, and anthropometric indicators in children (6-59 months; n = 3,230) in Burkina Faso. Multilevel regression was used to account for the hierarchical nature of the data. The prevalence of stunting and wasting in children 6-24 months was 19% and 17%, respectively, compared with a prevalence of 26% and 6%, respectively, in children 25-60 months. Over 90% of households owned poultry, and chicken faeces were visible in 70% of compounds. Caregivers reported that 3% of children consumed eggs during a 24-hr recall. The presence of poultry faeces was associated with poultry flock size, poultry-husbandry and household hygiene practices. Having an improved water source and a child visibly clean was associated with higher height-for-age z scores (HAZ). The presence of chicken faeces was associated with lower weight-for-height z scores, and no associations were found with HAZ. Low levels of poultry flock size and poultry consumption in Burkina Faso suggest there is scope to expand production and improve diets in children, including increasing chicken and egg consumption. However, to minimize potential child health risks associated with expanding informal poultry production, research is required to understand the mechanisms through which cohabitation with poultry adversely affects child health and design interventions to minimize these risks.

Animal Sourced Foods and Child Stunting.

Stunting affects 160 million pre-school children globally with adverse life-long consequences. While work within nutritional science suggests that stunting in early childhood is associated with low intakes of animal-sourced foods (ASFs), this topic has received little attention from economists. We attempt to redress this omission through an analysis of 130,432 children aged 6-23 months from 49 countries. We document distinctive patterns of ASF consumption among children in different regions. We find evidence of strong associations between stunting and a generic ASF consumption indicator, as well as dairy, meat/fish, and egg consumption indicators, and evidence that consuming multiple ASFs is more advantageous than any single ASF. We explore why ASF consumption is low but also so variable across countries. Non-tradable ASFs (fresh milk, eggs) are a very expensive source of calories in low-income countries and caloric prices of these foods are strongly associated with children's consumption patterns. Other demand-side factors are also important, but the strong influence of prices implies an important role for agricultural policies-in production, marketing and trade-to improve the accessibility and affordability of ASFs in poorer countries.

An egg for everyone: Pathways to universal access to one of nature's most nutritious foods.

Eggs are a highly nutritious food but have been shown to be infrequently consumed in many low-income countries, especially by women and children. We collate country-level data on egg production, availability, consumption, prices, industry structure, and contextual trends and use these to estimate current patterns and likely future outcomes under four alternative scenarios. These scenarios are as follows: incremental change based on expected economic growth and urbanisation (the base scenario); enhanced productivity of independent small producers; aggregated production in egg hubs; and the accelerated spread of large-scale intensive production. All scenarios are modelled out to 2030 using a mix of regression and deterministic models. We find that children's consumption of eggs is highly correlated with national availability, and both are a function of egg prices. Eggs are unavailable, expensive, and infrequently consumed by children in much of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The base scenario results in modest increases in production in low-income regions. Focusing efforts on independent small producers can only boost rural consumption in a handful of countries where poultry ownership is unusually high and would be expensive and logistically challenging to scale. Aggregation of production, with minimum flock sizes of 5,000 layers per farm, is a more promising pathway to increasing availability in rural areas. To meet the needs of urban populations, large-scale intensive production is needed. Intensive production brings down prices significantly, allowing many more poor households to access and consume eggs. Recent experience in countries such as Thailand confirms that this is both feasible and impactful.

Understanding the geographical burden of stunting in India: A regression-decomposition analysis of district-level data from 2015-16.

India accounts for approximately one third of the world's total population of stunted preschoolers. Addressing global undernutrition, therefore, requires an understanding of the determinants of stunting across India's diverse states and districts. We created a district-level aggregate data set from the recently released 2015-2016 National and Family Health Survey, which covered 601,509 households in 640 districts. We used mapping and descriptive analyses to understand spatial differences in distribution of stunting. We then used population-weighted regressions to identify stunting determinants and regression-based decompositions to explain differences between high- and low-stunting districts across India. Stunting prevalence is high (38.4%) and varies considerably across districts (range: 12.4% to 65.1%), with 239 of the 640 districts have stunting levels above 40% and 202 have prevalence of 30-40%. High-stunting districts are heavily clustered in the north and centre of the country. Differences in stunting prevalence between low and high burden districts were explained by differences in women's low body mass index (19% of the difference), education (12%), children's adequate diet (9%), assets (7%), open defecation (7%), age at marriage (7%), antenatal care (6%), and household size (5%). The decomposition models explained 71% of the observed difference in stunting prevalence. Our findings emphasize the variability in stunting across India, reinforce the multifactorial determinants of stunting, and highlight that interdistrict differences in stunting are strongly explained by a multitude of economic, health, hygiene, and demographic factors. A nationwide focus for stunting prevention is required, while addressing critical determinants district-by-district to reduce inequalities and prevalence of childhood stunting.

Progress and inequalities in infant and young child feeding practices in India between 2006 and 2016.

Limited evidence exists on socio-economic status (SES) inequalities in infant and young child feeding (IYCF) in India. We examine trends and changes in inequalities for IYCF practices over 2006-2016 and identify factors that may explain differences in IYCF across SES groups. We use data from the 2015-2016 and 2005-2006 National Family Health Surveys (n = 112,133 children < 24 months). We constructed SES quintiles (Q) and assessed inequalities using concentration and slope indices. We applied path analyses to examine the relationship between SES inequalities, intermediate determinants, and IYCF. Breastfeeding improved significantly over 2006-2016: from 23% to 42% for early initiation of breastfeeding (EIBF) and 46% to 55% for exclusive breastfeeding (EBF). Minimum dietary diversity (MDD) improved modestly (15% to 21%), but adequate diet did not change (~9%). Large SES gaps (Q5-Q1) were found for EIBF (8-17%) and EBF (-15% to -10%) in 2006; these gaps closed in 2016. The most inequitable practices in 2006 were MDD and iron-rich foods (Q5 ~ 2-4 times higher than Q1); these gaps narrowed in 2016, but levels are low across SES groups. Factors along the path from SES inequalities to IYCF practices included health and nutrition services, information access, maternal education, number of children < 5 years, and urban/rural residence. The improvements in breastfeeding and narrowing of equity gaps in IYCF practices in India are significant achievements. However, ensuring the health and well-being of India's large birth cohort will require more efforts to further improve breastfeeding, and concerted actions to address all aspects of complementary feeding across SES quintiles.