Feasibility of Treatment Agents in Radioactive Iodine Separation from Waste Liquids.

ABSTRACT: To discharge waste liquid containing radioactive iodine into sewage systems, long-term storage or dilution with a large amount of water may be required until the radioactivity concentration reduces below the standard value. Processing the waste liquid could be easier if radioactive iodine could be separated from the water. This study verified the effectiveness of superabsorbent polymer and α-cyclodextrin as treatment agents to separate radioactive iodine from waste liquids. Sodium iodide (Na 125 I) was added to purified water and artificial urine to prepare simulated waste liquids containing iodine equivalent to the urine of patients treated with radioactive iodine. The as-prepared simulated waste liquid was poured into a container with superabsorbent polymer and left for 90 d. The residual iodine rate in the simulated waste liquid was estimated by measuring 125 I radioactivity. When the water was sufficiently dried, residual iodine rates on day 15 were 0.102 and 0.884 in the simulated waste liquids comprising purified water and artificial urine, respectively. The simulated waste liquid comprising purified water with 5% α-cyclodextrin absorbed by 1 g of superabsorbent polymer had a residual rate of 0.980. Moreover, the residual rate of simulated waste liquid comprising artificial urine with 2% α-cyclodextrin absorbed by 1 g of SAP was 0.949. Superabsorbent polymer combined with α-cyclodextrin was an effective treatment agent for separating radioactive iodine from waste liquids.

Radiocesium-bearing microparticles found in dry deposition fallout samples immediately after the Fukushima nuclear accident in the Kanto region, Japan.

Radiocesium released by the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident still exists in the environment in two forms: adsorbed species on mineral particles in the soil and microparticles containing radiocesium mainly composed of silicate glass (CsMPs). CsMPs are dispersed not only around the FDNPP but also over a wide area of the Kanto region. The behavior and characteristics of CsMPs must be investigated to evaluate the impact of the FDNPP accident. Deposited particles including radiocesium were wiped from metal handrails on balconies and car hoods using tissue papers at six locations in the Kanto region (Tokai village, Ushiku City, Abiko City, Chiba City, Kawaguchi City, and Arakawa Ward) between March 15 and 21, 2011. CsMPs were isolated from the samples, and their characteristics were investigated. In total, 106 CsMPs derived from Unit 2 were successfully separated from 13 tissue paper samples. The radiation images of the two types of CsMPs discovered in Ushiku City demonstrate that CsMPs can easily become susceptible to fragmentation over time, even in the absence of weathering effects.

Reduction of thyroid radioactive iodine exposure by oral administration of cyclic oligosaccharides.

Alpha-cyclodextrin, a six D-glucose cyclic oligosaccharide, has several applications in food and pharmaceuticals, but has also been reported to retain iodine in a stable manner for 16 months. Radioactive iodine, which may cause thyroid cancer and hypofunction, must be properly managed. If the absorption of radioactive iodine is suppressed, it can be expected to lead to a reduction in thyroid exposure. This study clarified the inhibition of radioactive iodine absorption by the oral administration of α-cyclodextrin in a murine model using direct measurement of single photon emission computed tomography. The uptake of radioactive iodine into the thyroid gland in mice administered with radioactive iodine and an α-cyclodextrin solution was approximately 40% lower after 24 h. The finding that oral uptake of α-cyclodextrin has an inhibitory effect on the transfer of radioactive iodine to the thyroid gland has potential for application in many fields such as food, pharmaceuticals, nuclear emergency preparedness, and medicine.

(90)Y bremsstrahlung emission computed tomography using gamma cameras.

OBJECTIVE: This study demonstrates images obtained by (90)Y bremsstrahlung emission computed tomography (BECT), and characterizes the system performance of gamma cameras. METHODS: (90)Y BECT images of phantoms were acquired using a gamma camera equipped with a medium energy general purpose parallel-hole collimator. Three energy window widths of 50% (57-94 keV) centered at 75 keV, 30% (102-138 keV) at 120 keV, and 50% (139-232 keV) at 185 keV were set on a (90)Y bremsstrahlung spectrum. The images obtained with three energy windows were reconstructed using filtered back projection (FBP) and ordered subsets expectation maximization (OSEM) methods. The images of the sum window were obtained by fusing the images of the 75, 120, and 185 keV windows. RESULTS: The OSEM method improved the full width at half maximum by 20% and the standard deviation by 9% compared with the FBP method. BECT displayed (90)Y biodistribution and quantified (90)Y activity. BECT images obtained with OSEM method using the 120 keV window showed the highest resolution and lowest uncertainty. The sum window showed the highest sensitivity, while its resolution was 10% inferior to that of the 120 keV window. One whole-body image can be taken over 100 min using the sum window. An absorber to cover the body surface reduced background by 30%. CONCLUSIONS: (90)Y BECT imaging can be used for patient assessment without modifying current treatment procedures.

(99m)Tc thyroid imaging system using multiple imaging plates.

A system for taking static thyroid (99m)Tc images was devised by using multiple imaging plates (IPs) and a low-energy high resolution collimator. System spatial resolution of the IP systems and the gamma camera was determined by referring to standards set by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association. Sensitivity was represented by using lower detection limits (LDLs). The sensitivity and resolution of IP systems using 16 IP probes connecting two collimators and 9 IPs were determined by using a 20 ml thyroid phantom, and compared with the sensitivity of gamma cameras. The sensitivity of the IP systems increased in proportion to the number of IPs. The sensitivity and resolution of a probe using 6 IPs and a high resolution collimator were equivalent to or superior to the gamma camera for taking static thyroid (99m)Tc images. IP systems can be applied clinically as mobile static nuclear imaging devices. The performance of IP systems should be thoroughly investigated for combinations of various collimators and the number of IPs in order to verify their efficacy for imaging all organs.

Effectiveness of an Imaging Plate System in Emergency 131I Thyroid Monitoring.

The effect of temperature and shielding on the lower detection limit of a thyroid I monitoring system was investigated in an anthropomorphic thyroid-neck phantom fitted with an imaging plate. The phantom was loaded with an I aqueous solution and monitored with the imaging plate for 10 min. After exposure, the plates were incubated with or without the shield at 0, 10, 20, 25, 30, or 40°C. The latent image was read out at 0 min to 7 d after exposure. The thyroid equivalent doses corresponding to the detection limit were calculated in six age categories, using the inhalation equivalent dose coefficients recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection. The detection limit was distributed between 0.13 and 4.2 kBq, and depended on the age of subjects, elapsed time, temperature, and shielding provision. The maximum detection limit of 4.2 kBq was below the emergency screening level of 30 kBq in Japan. The thyroid equivalent dose corresponding to the detection limit ranged from 0.17 to 46 mSv. From the maximum equivalent dose of 46 mSv, the effective dose was estimated as 1.8 mSv, lower than the annual effective dose limit of 20 mSv for radiation workers. At 2 d after exposure, the measured dose was below the annual effective dose limit of 1 mSv for the public, regardless of age, temperature, and shielding provision. The imaging plate system effectively monitors the I thyroid levels in emergency situations.

Development of 241Am lung monitoring system using an imaging plate.

A new 241Am lung monitoring system without shielding was devised by using an imaging plate system. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's realistic torso phantom containing a 241Am lung was covered by imaging plates sealed in lightproof bags. The imaging plate system displayed 241Am lung images characteristic of the lung shape of the torso phantom. The imaging plate system's lower detection limits of 14 Bq for 60 min exposure and 6 Bq for 300 min were the same levels as those of the phoswich detectors and the germanium detectors placed in shielded rooms. The imaging plate system for 60 min exposure detected about 2% of the annual limit of 740 Bq for 241Am inhalation. A lung monitoring system using imaging plates is applicable for 241Am lung monitoring.

Electromagnetic malfunction of semiconductor-type electronic personal dosimeters caused by access control systems for radiation facilities.

High frequency electromagnetic fields in the 120 kHz band emitted from card readers for access control systems in radiation control areas cause abnormally high and erroneous indicated dose readings on semiconductor-type electronic personal dosimeters (SEPDs). All SEPDs malfunctioned but recovered their normal performance by resetting after the exposure ceased. The minimum distances required to prevent electromagnetic interference varied from 5.0 to 38.0 cm. The electric and magnetic immunity levels ranged from 35.1 to 267.6 V m(-1) and from 1.0 to 16.6 A m(-1), respectively. Electromagnetic immunity levels of SEPDs should be strengthened from the standpoint of radiation protection.

APPLICATION OF AN IMAGING PLATE FOR EVALUATING THE UNCERTAINTY IN DIRECT ORGAN MEASUREMENTS DUE TO VARIATION IN DETECTOR LOCATION.

In direct organ measurements, there can be uncertainty to the quantified amount of activity due to variations in detector locations. Here, the authors demonstrate a new use of an imaging plate (IP) for evaluating this uncertainty. The method requires only that an array of regions of interest (ROIs) is set on a latent image obtained from the IP; each ROI conforms to an active area of the detector to be used. In this study, the proposed method was tested in an experiment using a realistic torso phantom containing an (241)Am liver source. The latent image of this source was obtained by irradiating the IP (20 × 40 cm(2)) from the anterior surface of the phantom. A comparison of responses between the IP and a high-purity germanium detector was made for 6 of the 144 circular ROIs arranged on the latent image, showing excellent correlation between the two sets of measures. The dispersion of the photostimulated luminescence values of the 144 ROIs was found to be 8.2% (1σ) and 1.09 as a log-normal scattering factor, which was expected to be the same as the uncertainty of concern in the present measurement with the HPGe detector.

Characterization of an in vivo thyroid 131I monitoring system using an imaging plate.

The effects of neck diameter, thyroid volume, and prethyroid tissue thickness on a count-activity conversion coefficient and the detection limit of a thyroid 131I monitoring system with an imaging plate (IP) were estimated by using an anthropomorphic thyroid-neck phantom. The conversion coefficient and detection limit of the IP system was approximately constant for normal Japanese adults regardless of their neck diameters, thyroid volumes, and prethyroid tissue thicknesses. The IP system is a new option for thyroid 131I monitoring.

Radiocesium distribution in bamboo shoots after the Fukushima nuclear accident.

The distribution of radiocesium was examined in bamboo shoots, Phyllostachys pubescens, collected from 10 sites located some 41 to 1140 km from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, Japan, in the Spring of 2012, 1 year after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Maximum activity concentrations for radiocesium ¹³4Cs and ¹³7Cs in the edible bamboo shoot parts, 41 km away from the Fukushima Daiichi plant, were in excess of 15.3 and 21.8 kBq/kg (dry weight basis; 1.34 and 1.92 kBq/kg, fresh weight), respectively. In the radiocesium-contaminated samples, the radiocesium activities were higher in the inner tip parts, including the upper edible parts and the apical culm sheath, than in the hardened culm sheath and underground basal parts. The radiocesium/potassium ratios also tended to be higher in the inner tip parts. The radiocesium activities increased with bamboo shoot length in another bamboo species, Phyllostachys bambusoides, suggesting that radiocesium accumulated in the inner tip parts during growth of the shoots.

Application of an imaging plate system to the direct measurement of a fixed surface contamination.

An imaging plate (IP) system was used as an effective detector for direct measurement of radioactive surface contamination. The IP system displayed images designating the locations and extent of fixed surface contamination of uranyl acetate. The amount of radioactive waste produced during decontamination was reduced because the contaminated spots could be isolated; furthermore, creation of radioactive dust during removal of contamination was prevented because the contaminated spots could be removed without being pulverized. The images were used in efficiently and safely isolating the location of fixed surface contamination. The IP system surface contamination detection limit for uranyl acetate was 2.5 × 10 Bq cm, a value much lower than the surface contamination limit and the clearance level.

Quantitation of Japanese cedar pollen and radiocesium adhered to nonwoven fabric masks worn by the general population.

In the spring of 2012, a year after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, radiocesium-contaminated Japanese cedar pollen may have caused internal exposure to the general population by inhalation. To determine if pollen had been contaminated through uptake of radiocesium by Japanese cedars and was therefore contributing to inhalation doses, the authors measured radiocesium and Japanese cedar pollen adhered to masks worn by 68 human subjects residing in eastern Japan, including Fukushima prefecture, for 8 wk in the spring of 2012. The maximum cumulative Cs and Cs radioactivities on masks worn by an individual were 21 ± 0.36 Bq and 15 ± 0.22 Bq, respectively, and the estimated effective dose during the 8 wk was 0.494 µSv. The average estimated effective dose during the 8 wk was 0.149 µSv in Fukushima prefecture and 0.015 µSv in other prefectures, including Tokyo metropolitan. The correlation between radiocesium activity and the Japanese cedar pollen count was moderate. However, imaging-plate and light microscopy observations showed that the main source of radiocesium adhered to masks was fugitive dust.

The reductive effect of an anti-pollinosis mask against internal exposure from radioactive materials dispersed from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster.

The reductive effect of an anti-pollinosis mask against internal exposure from radioactive materials dispersed following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster was investigated. A single mask was worn continuously for 18 h from 15:00 JST on 15 March to 09:00 JST on 16 March 2011 at the Hongo campus of the University of Tokyo, Japan. An adult without a mask was exposed during this time to radiation of 6.1 µSv over ambient background in effective dose and 33 µSv in dose equivalent to the thyroid. Radionuclides were dispersed not only in their gaseous and particulate state but also as components that agglomerate to other aerosols and pollens. Wearing a mask for anti-pollinosis could reduce internal exposure from inhalation.

Decontamination efficiencies of pot-type water purifiers for ¹³¹I, ¹³4Cs and ¹³7Cs in rainwater contaminated during Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

Rainwater was contaminated by a large release of radionuclides into the environment during the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. It became a matter of concern for Japan when several water purification plants detected ¹³¹I contamination in the drinking water. In the present study, the decontamination efficiency of two easily obtainable commercial water purifiers were examined for rainwater contaminated with ¹³¹I, ¹³4Cs and ¹³7Cs. The water purifiers removed 94.2-97.8% of the ¹³¹I and 84.2-91.5% of the ¹³4Cs and ¹³7Cs after one filtration. Seven filtrations removed 98.2-99.6% of the ¹³¹I and over 98.0% of the ¹³4Cs and ¹³7Cs. From a practical perspective, over the fourth filtrations were not needed because of no significant improvements after the third filtration.

Radionuclide analysis on bamboos following the Fukushima nuclear accident.

In response to contamination from the recent Fukushima nuclear accident, we conducted radionuclide analysis on bamboos sampled from six sites within a 25 to 980 km radius of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. Maximum activity concentrations of radiocesium (134)Cs and (137)Cs in samples from Fukushima city, 65 km away from the Fukushima Daiichi plant, were in excess of 71 and 79 kBq/kg, dry weight (DW), respectively. In Kashiwa city, 195 km away from the Fukushima Daiichi, the sample concentrations were in excess of 3.4 and 4.3 kBq/kg DW, respectively. In Toyohashi city, 440 km away from the Fukushima Daiichi, the concentrations were below the measurable limits of up to 4.5 Bq/kg DW. In the radiocesium contaminated samples, the radiocesium activity was higher in mature and fallen leaves than in young leaves, branches and culms.

Benchmarking of activation reaction distribution in an intermediate energy neutron field.

Neutron-induced reaction rate depth profiles inside concrete shield irradiated by intermediate energy neutron were calculated using a Monte-Carlo code and compared with an experiment. An irradiation field of intermediate neutron produced in the forward direction from a thick (stopping length) target bombarded by 400 MeV nucleon(-1) carbon ions was arranged at the heavy ion medical accelerator in Chiba. Ordinary concrete shield of 90 cm thickness was installed 50 cm downstream the iron target. Activation detectors of aluminum, gold and gold covered with cadmium were inserted at various depths. Irradiated samples were extracted after exposure and gamma-ray spectrometry was performed for each sample. Comparison of experimental and calculated shows good agreement for both low- and high-energy neutron-induced reaction except for (27)Al(n,X)(24)Na reaction at the surface.

Feasibility of in vivo measurement of 239 Pu distribution in lungs using an imaging plate.

An in vivo measurement system using an imaging plate (IP) system was developed, which displayed images reflecting (239)Pu distribution in the lung of a phantom. The detection limits of the IP system for 1-12h exposures were between 1670 and 245 Bq at a 1.6 cm chest wall thickness. The detection limit of the IP system for a 2.5h exposure was equal to that of a germanium detector for a 0.5h measurement. The IP system could be used as a new device for in vivo measurement of (239)Pu in the lung.

Radiation effects on communication performance of radio frequency identification tags.

Radioactive materials (sources) are managed by bookkeeping and stocktaking. The radiation protection section staffs should check the sources manually. Annual effective dose concerning stocktaking of them are estimated at some mSv concerning fingers. A radio frequency identification (RFID) tag's absorbed dose is estimated at some dozen Gy. RFID for stocktaking automatically was devised. Radiation effects on the communication performance of RFID tags were investigated by using response times and read ranges as indices. The RFID system was composed of a computer, a detector, and transponders (tag) consisting of an integrated circuit chip and an antenna. The tag is joined to the source for identification. The tags were irradiated at doses between 5 and 5,000 Gy by an x-ray irradiator. The response times and the read ranges were tracked from 40 to 23,200 min after irradiation. Relative read ranges fluctuated between 0.9 and 1.1 in the dose region less than 2,000 Gy, but fluctuated greatly in the dose region beyond 2,000 Gy. Malfunctioning tags appeared from 3,000 Gy, and all tags malfunctioned in the dose region over 4,500 Gy. The threshold dose leading to malfunction was determined to be 2,100 Gy. Time variation of relative read ranges was classified into four patterns. The pattern shifted from pattern 1 to 4 when the dose was increased. The relative read ranges lengthened in pattern 1. The relative read rages were approximately 1.0 in pattern 2. The read ranges tentatively shortened, then recovered in pattern 3. The tags malfunctioned in pattern 4. Once the tags malfunctioned, they never recovered their performance. Radiation enhances or deteriorates communication performance depending on dosage. Tags can spontaneously recover from radiation deterioration. The time variation of the read ranges can be illustrated by enhancement, deterioration, and recovery. The mechanism of four patterns is explained based on the variation of the frequency harmonization strength and activation voltage by irradiation. The annual effective dose of radiation protection section staffs can be reduced considerably.