Pilot study evaluating treatment with sumatriptan for moderate to severe post-traumatic headache: A phase 2 open-label study.

OBJECTIVE: Our primary outcome was to determine the feasibility of patients with post-traumatic headache (PTH) keeping a daily headache diary and using sumatriptan as directed. Secondary outcomes include determining if sumatriptan is effective in aborting PTH and whether headache resolution is dependent on PTH phenotype. BACKGROUND: PTH is prevalent and persistent after traumatic brain injury, yet there have been few studies evaluating the effects of pharmacological treatments in individuals with PTH. METHODS: This is a single-arm, prospective, non-randomized phase 2 clinical trial registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT01854385) and conducted from 2013 to 2017. Data analysis was completed in 2022. Of the 299 participants screened, 40 were enrolled in the study. Participants kept a headache diary documenting headache characteristics and severity. Headache characteristics were used to determine PTH phenotypes of migraine-like, probable migraine-like, or non-migraine-like. Participants reported whether sumatriptan was used for their headache, their response to the medication, if a second dose was taken, and their response to the second dose. RESULTS: A total of 15 participants out of the 40 enrolled (mean [SD] age, 41.9 [14.2] years, and 53% [21/40] male), met the criteria for the use of sumatriptan, and completed all assessments. Average headache diary compliance rate for the final month of the study was 80% (372/465). While sumatriptan was used for only 19% (122/654) of all reported headaches, 72% (88/122) of those headaches resolved within 2 h of taking the medication. Resolution of headaches with sumatriptan was not significantly different among headache phenotypes (migraine-like: 22/38 [58%], probable migraine-like: 24/29 [83%], non-migraine-like: 6/15 [40%]; p = 0.154). CONCLUSIONS: A daily headache diary is feasible for tracking headache symptoms. Preliminary results also suggest that sumatriptan, a migraine-specific medication, may be beneficial for the treatment of PTH of different clinical phenotypes. Future studies, such as a phase 3 clinical trial with a larger sample size, are needed to better understand the efficacy of sumatriptan in the treatment of PTH.

What Are the Predictors for and Psychosocial Correlates of Chronic Headache After Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury?

OBJECTIVE: Although headache (HA) is a common sequela of traumatic brain injury (TBI), early predictors of chronic HA after moderate to severe TBI are not well established, and the relationship chronic HA has with psychosocial functioning is understudied. Thus, we sought to (1) determine demographic and injury predictors of chronic HA 1 or more years after moderate to severe TBI and (2) examine associations between chronic HA and psychosocial outcomes. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Participants in the TBI Model System (TBIMS) with moderate to severe TBI who consented for additional chronic pain questionnaires at the time of TBIMS follow-up. DESIGN: Multisite, observational cohort study using LASSO (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) regression for prediction modeling and independent t tests for psychosocial associations. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Chronic HA after TBI at year 1 or 2 postinjury and more remotely (5 or more years). RESULTS: The LASSO model for chronic HA at 1 to 2 years achieved acceptable predictability (cross-validated area under the curve [AUC] = 0.70). At 5 or more years, predictability was nearly acceptable (cross-validated AUC = 0.68), but much more complex, with more than twice as many variables contributing. Injury characteristics had stronger predictive value at postinjury years 1 to 2 versus 5 or more years, especially sustained intracranial pressure elevation (odds ratio [OR] = 3.8) and skull fragments on head computed tomography (CT) (OR = 2.5). Additional TBI(s) was a risk factor at both time frames, as were multiple socioeconomic characteristics, including lower education level, younger age, female gender, and Black race. Lower education level was a particularly strong predictor at 5 or more years (OR up to 3.5). Emotional and participation outcomes were broadly poorer among persons with chronic HA after moderate to severe TBI. CONCLUSIONS: Among people with moderate to severe TBI, chronic HA is associated with significant psychosocial burden. The identified risk factors will enable targeted clinical screening and monitoring strategies to enhance clinical care pathways that could lead to better outcomes. They may also be useful as stratification or covariates in future clinical trial research on treatments.

Relationship Between Extreme Pain Phenotypes and Psychosocial Outcomes in Persons With Chronic Pain Following Traumatic Brain Injury: A NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between extreme pain phenotypes (interference and improvement) and psychosocial outcomes among those with chronic pain after traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: In total, 1762 TBI Model Systems (TBIMS) participants 1 to 30 years postinjury reporting chronic pain. DESIGN: Multisite, cross-sectional, observational cohort study. PRIMARY MEASURES: Life satisfaction, posttraumatic stress, depression and anxiety symptoms, sleep and participation, the Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) interference scale, and the Patient's Global Impression of Change (PGIC). RESULTS: Persons in the extreme high interference phenotype (vs extreme low interference phenotype) and/or extreme no change phenotype (vs extreme improvement phenotype) had poorer psychosocial outcomes, with extreme pain interference phenotypes having a larger effect on outcomes than extreme perceived improvement phenotypes. After controlling for covariates, large effect sizes (ES) related to pain interference were observed for posttraumatic stress symptoms (ES = -1.14), sleep quality (ES = -1.10), depression (ES = -1.08), anxiety (ES = -0.82), and life satisfaction (ES = 0.76); effect sizes for participation outcomes, although significant, were relatively small (ES = 0.21-0.36). Effect sizes related to perceived improvement were small for life satisfaction (ES = 0.20) and participation (ES = 0.16-0.21) outcomes. Pain intensity was identified as a meaningful confounding factor of the relationships between extreme phenotypes and posttraumatic stress, depression, anxiety, and sleep quality. CONCLUSIONS: Examination of extreme phenotypes provides important insights into the experience of individuals living with chronic pain and TBI. Results suggest that the relationships among a variety of characteristics of the person, their experience with pain, and treatment of pain are complex. Further research is needed to better understand these complex relationships and how differences in pain interference and perceived improvement from treatment can assist in assessment and treatment of chronic pain after TBI.

Cost-Effectiveness of Sleep Apnea Diagnosis and Treatment in Hospitalized Persons With Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative approaches to diagnose and treat obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) during inpatient rehabilitation. SETTING: Data collected during the Comparison of Sleep Apnea Assessment Strategies to Maximize TBI Rehabilitation Participation and Outcome (C-SAS) clinical trial (NCT03033901) on an inpatient rehabilitation TBI cohort were used in this study. STUDY DESIGN: Decision tree analysis was used to determine the cost-effectiveness of approaches to diagnosing and treating sleep apnea. Costs were determined using 2021 Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services reimbursement codes. Effectiveness was defined in terms of the appropriateness of treatment. Costs averted were extracted from the literature. A sensitivity analysis was performed to account for uncertainty. Analyses were performed for all severity levels of OSA and a subgroup of those with moderate to severe OSA. Six inpatient approaches using various phases of screening, testing, and treatment that conform to usual care or guideline-endorsed interventions were evaluated: (1) usual care; (2) portable diagnostic testing followed by laboratory-quality testing; (3) screening with the snoring, tiredness, observed apnea, high BP, BMI, age, neck circumference, and male gender (STOP-Bang) questionnaire; (4) Multivariable Apnea Prediction Index (MAPI) followed by portable diagnostic testing and laboratory-quality testing; (5) laboratory-quality testing for all; and (6) treatment for all patients. MAIN MEASURES: Cost, Effectiveness, and Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER). RESULTS: Phased approaches utilizing screening and diagnostic tools were more effective in diagnosing and allocating treatment for OSA than all alternatives in patients with mild to severe and moderate to severe OSA. Usual care was more costly and less effective than all other approaches for mild to severe and moderate to severe OSA. CONCLUSIONS: Diagnosing and treating OSA in patients with TBI is a cost-effective strategy when compared with usual care.

Patient and Caregiver Satisfaction With the Brain Injury Rehabilitation: Improving the Transition Experience (BRITE) Intervention.

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain patient and caregiver satisfaction with an individualized case management intervention to improve transition from inpatient rehabilitation care to the community after traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Participants from 6 National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research-funded TBI Model Systems sites in the United States. PARTICIPANTS: Adult, English-speaking patients with TBI who had moderate-to-severe TBI and were discharged from a TBI Model Systems site and who were in the intervention arm of the Brain Injury Rehabilitation: Improving the Transition Experience pragmatic clinical trial, as well as their caregivers. DESIGN: A survey of participants in the intervention arm, which included an individualized case management program administered by a TBI Care Manager (TCM) who facilitated resource connection, education, and support. MAIN MEASURES: Satisfaction with intervention was measured through Likert-scaled and open-ended questions. The survey was administered verbally through telephone, audio-recorded, and transcribed. Descriptive statistics were calculated for categorical variables, and content analysis was conducted for open-ended responses. RESULTS: Patient and caregiver participants were satisfied with the intervention and highlighted the benefits of the interpersonal and practical support provided by the TCM. Participants identified the need for a more intensive intervention and clear expectations of the TCM role, as well as gaps in available medical and rehabilitation services in the community, as areas for improvement. CONCLUSION: Patients with TBI and their caregivers reported satisfaction with the individualized case management program in supporting their transition from inpatient rehabilitation to the community. Further research is needed to understand the impact on outcomes.

Characterizing Extreme Phenotypes for Pain Interference in Persons With Chronic Pain Following Traumatic Brain Injury: A NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: To define and characterize extreme phenotypes based on pain interference for persons with chronic pain following traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Eighteen Traumatic Brain Injury Model System (TBIMS) Centers. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1762 TBIMS participants 1 to 30 years post-injury reporting chronic pain at their most recent follow-up interview. PRIMARY MEASURES: The Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) interference scale, sociodemographic, injury, functional outcome, pain, and treatment characteristics. RESULTS: Participants were predominantly male (73%), White (75%), middle-aged (mean 46 years), and who were injured in motor vehicle accidents (53%) or falls (20%). Extreme phenotypes were identified based on upper and lower 25th percentiles to create low-interference ( n = 441) and high-interference ( n = 431) extreme phenotypes. Bivariate comparisons found several sociodemographic, injury, function, pain, and treatment differences between extreme phenotype groups, including significant differences ( P < .001) on all measures of concurrent function with those in the low-interference extreme phenotype experiencing better function than those in the high-interference extreme phenotype. Lasso regression combined with logistic regression identified multivariable predictors of low- versus high-interference extreme phenotypes. Reductions in the odds of low- versus high-interference phenotypes were significantly associated with higher pain intensity (odds ratio [OR] = 0.33), having neuropathic pain (OR = 0.40), migraine headache (OR = 0.41), leg/feet pain (OR = 0.34), or hip pain (OR = 0.46), and more pain catastrophizing (OR = 0.81). CONCLUSION: Results suggest that for those who experience current chronic pain, there is high variability in the experience and impact of pain. Future research is needed to better understand how pain experience impacts individuals with chronic pain and TBI given that pain characteristics were the primary distinguishing factors between phenotypes. The use of extreme phenotypes for pain interference may be useful to better stratify samples to determine efficacy of pain treatment for individuals with TBI.

Characterizing Extreme Phenotypes for Perceived Improvement From Treatment in Persons With Chronic Pain Following Traumatic Brain Injury: A NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: To define and characterize extreme phenotypes based on perceived improvement in pain for persons with chronic pain following traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Eighteen Traumatic Brain Injury Model System (TBIMS) Centers. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1762 TBIMS participants 1 to 30 years post-injury reporting chronic pain at their most recent follow-up interview. PRIMARY MEASURES: The Patient's Global Impression of Change (PGIC) related to pain treatment. Sociodemographic, injury, functional outcome, pain, and pain treatment characteristics. RESULTS: Participants were mostly male (73%), White (75%), middle-aged (mean 46 years), injured in motor vehicle accidents (53%), or falls (20%). Extreme phenotypes were created for an extreme improvement phenotype ( n = 512, 29.8%) defined as "moderately better" or above on the PGIC and an extreme no-change group ( n = 290, 16.9%) defined as no change or worse. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression combined with logistic regression identified multivariable predictors of improvement versus no-change extreme phenotypes. Higher odds of extreme improvement phenotype were significantly associated with being female (odds ratio [OR] = 1.85), married versus single (OR = 2.02), better motor function (OR = 1.03), lower pain intensity (OR = 0.78), and less frequent pain, especially chest pain (OR = 0.36). Several pain treatments were associated with higher odds of being in the extreme improvement versus no-change phenotypes including pain medication (OR = 1.85), physical therapy (OR = 1.51), yoga (OR = 1.61), home exercise program (OR = 1.07), and massage (OR = 1.69). CONCLUSION: Investigation of extreme phenotypes based on perceived improvement with pain treatment highlights the ability to identify characteristics of individuals based on pain treatment responsiveness. A better understanding of the biopsychosocial characteristics of those who respond and do not respond to pain treatments received may help inform better surveillance, monitoring, and treatment. With further research, the identification of risk factors (such as pain intensity and frequency) for treatment response/nonresponse may provide indicators to prompt changes in care for individuals with chronic pain after TBI.

Stakeholder Engagement to Identify Implementation Strategies to Overcome Barriers to Delivering Chronic Pain Treatments: A NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to illustrate the process of stakeholder-engaged intervention mapping approach to identify implementation strategies to overcome data-driven prioritized barriers to receiving chronic pain services for persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Healthcare providers (n = 63) with 2 or more years' experience treating persons with TBI, interviewed between October 2020 and November 2021 provided data for identification of barriers. TBI, chronic pain, and qualitative research subject matter experts (SMEs) participated in the mapping approach. DESIGN: Participatory-based research design, using descriptive and intervention mapping approaches. RESULTS: Four barriers to accessing chronic pain treatment by persons with TBI which emerged from provider interviews were prioritized for intervention mapping: cognitive deficits of patients (67%); patient comorbidities (63%); mental health and/or substance abuse issues (59%); and patient participation (62%). SMEs used prioritized barriers to develop 4 primary objectives and implementation strategies designed to: (1) engage consumers to validate and identify strategies; (2) tailor pain treatment and delivery to overcome barriers; (3) develop and disseminate guidelines and best practices when delivering care to persons with TBI to support spread; and (4) increase awareness, skills, and readiness of workforce to deliver pain treatment to persons with TBI. SMEs used an evidence-based approach to develop a mapping matrix of the prioritized barriers, implementation objectives, and aligned implementation strategies to impact change. CONCLUSION: Implementation science is needed to facilitate knowledge translation into practice for this complex population to overcome barriers to care. Implementation strategies to address barriers to accessing chronic pain care for individuals with TBI were chosen through a participatory approach to engaging SMEs to support these rehabilitation implementation efforts. Future work includes gathering input from individuals with TBI and chronic pain and to move the intervention (implementation) mapping matrix forward to inform future implementation research, policy, and practice.

Characterization and Treatment of Chronic Pain After Traumatic Brain Injury-Comparison of Characteristics Between Individuals With Current Pain, Past Pain, and No Pain: A NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of chronic pain after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and identify characteristics that differ from those without chronic pain. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 3804 TBI Model Systems (TBIMS) participants who completed the Pain Survey at TBIMS follow-up. DESIGN: A multisite, cross-sectional observational cohort study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Functional outcomes, pain experience, and treatment. RESULTS: 46% reported current chronic pain, 14% reported past (post-injury) chronic pain, and 40% reported no chronic pain. Bivariate differences in sociodemographic and injury characteristics between the 3 pain groups were generally small in effect size, reflecting little clinical difference. However, medium effect sizes were seen for all functional outcomes, such that individuals with current chronic pain had worse functional outcomes compared with individuals in the past pain or no pain groups. Treatment utilization rates were higher for individuals with current chronic pain compared with past pain, with medical treatments being most frequently utilized. Individuals with past pain perceived more improvement with treatment than did those with current chronic pain as represented by a large effect size. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic pain affects approximately 60% of those living with TBI. The implications of chronic pain for functional outcomes support inclusion of pain metrics in prognostic models and observational studies in this population. Future research is needed to proactively identify those at risk for the development of chronic pain and determine the efficacy and access to pain treatment.

Provider Perspectives of Facilitators and Barriers to Reaching and Utilizing Chronic Pain Healthcare for Persons With Traumatic Brain Injury: A Qualitative NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: To identify facilitators and barriers to reaching and utilizing chronic pain treatments for persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI) organized around an Access to Care framework, which includes dimensions of access to healthcare as a function of supply (ie, provider/system) and demand (ie, patient) factors for a specified patient population. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Clinicians (n = 63) with experience treating persons with TBI were interviewed between October 2020 and November 2021. DESIGN: Descriptive, qualitative study. MAIN MEASURES: Semistructured open-ended interview of chronic pain management for persons with TBI. Informed by the Access to Care framework, responses were coded by and categorized within the core domains (reaching care, utilizing care) and relevant subdimensions from the supply (affordability of providing care, quality, coordination/continuity, adequacy) and demand (ability to pay, adherence, empowerment, caregiver support) perspective. RESULTS: Themes from provider interviews focused on healthcare reaching and healthcare utilization resulted in 19 facilitators and 9 barriers reaching saturation. The most themes fell under the utilization core domain, with themes identified that impact the technical and interpersonal quality of care and care coordination/continuity. Accessibility and availability of specialty care and use of interdisciplinary team that permitted matching patients to treatments were leading thematic facilitators. The leading thematic barrier identified primarily by medical providers was cognitive disability, which is likely directly linked with other leading barriers including high rates of noncompliance and poor follow-up in health care. Medical and behavioral health complexity was also a leading barrier to care and potentially interrelated to other themes identified. CONCLUSION: This is the first evidence-based study to inform policy and planning for this complex population to improve access to high-quality chronic pain treatment. Further research is needed to gain a better understanding of the perspectives of individuals with TBI/caregivers to inform interventions to improve access to chronic pain treatment for persons with TBI.

Provider Perceived Facilitators and Barriers to Identifying, Perceiving, and Seeking Healthcare for Chronic Pain After TBI: A Qualitative NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: Identify determinants to chronic pain healthcare for persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI) informed by an Access to Care Framework. Findings related to the Access Framework's core domains of identifying a need, perceptions of the need, and seeking healthcare are reported. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Healthcare providers (n = 63) with 2 or more years of experience treating persons with TBI interviewed between October 2020 and November 2021. DESIGN: Descriptive, qualitative study. MAIN MEASURES: Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions of chronic pain management for persons with TBI. Informed by the Access Framework, responses were coded by and categorized within the domains of identifying healthcare needs, perceptions of needs, and factors related to healthcare seeking from the supply and demand perspective. RESULTS: For the overall sample, 14 facilitators and 6 barriers were endorsed by more than 20% of the provider cohort. Top facilitators included on-site availability of needed resources and treatments (94%), adequate time and provider capability to ensure patient comprehension of diagnosis and treatment plans (83%), and establishing patient motivation and buy-in with the treatment plan (75%). Barriers most endorsed included policies impacting access (46%), wait times for services (41%), and patient uncertainty regarding telehealth commonly due to cognitive and physical challenges (37%). Unique determinants are reported across civilian versus Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) healthcare systems and different provider types. CONCLUSION: This is the first evidence-based study to inform policy and planning to improve access to high-quality chronic pain treatments for persons with TBI. Results will inform future interventions at the systems, patient, and policy levels of healthcare that can be tailored to healthcare settings (VA, Civilian) and types of providers (rehabilitation therapists, psychologists, and medical). Evidence-informed interventions may help minimize healthcare disparities experienced by persons with TBI and facilitate access to high-quality, evidence-informed chronic pain care.

Associations of Chronic Pain With Psychosocial Outcomes After Traumatic Brain Injury: A NIDILRR and VA TBI Model Systems Collaborative Project.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the differences in participation, life satisfaction, and psychosocial outcomes among individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) endorsing current, past, or no chronic pain. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Three thousand eight hundred four TBI Model Systems participants 1 to 30 years of age postinjury classified into 1 of 3 groups based on their pain experience: current pain, past pain, no pain completed a Pain Survey at their usual follow-up appointment which on average was approximately 8 years postinjury. DESIGN: Multisite, cross-sectional observational cohort study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sociodemographic and injury characteristics and psychosocial outcomes (ie, satisfaction with life, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], sleep quality, community participation). RESULTS: Persons with current chronic pain demonstrated higher scores on measures of PTSD, anxiety, and depression, and the lower scores on measures of sleep quality, community participation and satisfaction with life. Those with resolved past pain had mean scores for these outcomes that were all between the current and no chronic pain groups, but always closest to the no pain group. After adjusting for sociodemographic and function in multivariate analysis, having current chronic pain was associated with more negative psychosocial outcomes. The largest effect sizes (ES; in absolute value) were observed for the PTSD, depression, anxiety, and sleep quality measures (ES = 0.52-0.81) when comparing current pain to past or no pain, smaller ES were observed for life satisfaction (ES = 0.22-0.37) and out and about participation (ES = 0.16-0.18). When comparing past and no pain groups, adjusted ES were generally small for life satisfaction, PTSD, depression, anxiety, and sleep quality (ES = 0.10-0.23) and minimal for participation outcomes (ES = 0.02-0.06). CONCLUSIONS: Chronic pain is prevalent among individuals with TBI and is associated with poorer psychosocial outcomes, especially for PTSD, depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbance. The results from this study highlight the presence of modifiable comorbidities among those with chronic pain and TBI. Persons who experience persistent pain following TBI may be at greater risk for worse psychosocial outcomes.

Barriers and Facilitators to Accessing Rehabilitation Health Care: A Veterans Affairs Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Qualitative Study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare barriers and facilitators to accessing health care services among service members and veterans (SMVs) by traumatic brain injury (TBI) severity groups. DESIGN: Qualitative descriptive study guided by an access to health care services conceptual framework. SETTING: Five Veterans Affairs (VA) polytrauma rehabilitation centers. PARTICIPANTS: SMVs (N=55, including 10 caregivers as proxies) ≥2 years post-TBI recruited from the VA TBI Model Systems and grouped by TBI severity (mild/moderate, severe). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Barriers and facilitators accessing care. RESULTS: The main facilitators included ease of communicating with providers to help SMVs identify and utilize appropriate health care, family advocates who promoted engagement in health care, ability to use government and community facilities, and online resources or equipment. Distance to services was uniformly identified as a main barrier for both patient groups. However, facilitators and barriers to health care access differed by TBI severity. SMVs with severe TBI highlighted the role of nonprofit organizations in promoting health care engagement and the availability of VA specialty residential programs in meeting health care needs. Having unrecognized health care needs in chronic stages and communication difficulties with providers were more commonplace for those with greater TBI severity and affected quality of care. Those with mild/moderate TBI highlighted challenges associated with paying for services in the community and scheduling of services. CONCLUSIONS: Barriers and facilitators exist across multiple dimensions of a health care access framework and vary by TBI severity. Results suggest possible mechanistic links between health care access and SMV health outcomes. Findings support current policy and practice efforts to facilitate health care access for SMVs with TBI but highlight the need for tailored approaches for those with greater disability.

Coping With Chronic Pain After Traumatic Brain Injury: Role of Race/Ethnicity and Effect on Participation Outcomes in a TBI Model Systems Sample.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate catastrophizing and self-efficacy for managing pain among Non-Hispanic Whites, Non-Hispanic Blacks, and Hispanics with chronic pain after traumatic brain injury (TBI), and whether coping interacts with race/ethnicity to predict participation outcomes. SETTING: Community after discharge from inpatient rehabilitation. PARTICIPANTS: 621 individuals with moderate to severe TBI and chronic pain, who completed follow-up as part of a national longitudinal study of TBI and also participated in a collaborative study on chronic pain. DESIGN: Multicenter, cross-sectional, survey study. MAIN MEASURES: Catastrophizing subscale from the Coping With Pain Scale; Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire; Participation Assessment With Recombined Tools-Objective. RESULTS: After controlling for relevant sociodemographic variables, a significant interaction was observed between race/ethnicity and insurance status, such that Blacks who had public health insurance reported greater catastrophizing in response to pain compared with Whites. Race/ethnicity and self-efficacy for managing pain were unrelated. Greater catastrophizing was associated with lower participation but did not interact with race/ethnicity. Blacks reported lower participation relative to Whites, independent of catastrophizing. CONCLUSIONS: Black individuals who have TBI and chronic pain, and who have public insurance, may be vulnerable to difficulties managing pain. They are more likely to cope by catastrophizing, and catastrophizing is related to worse participation outcomes. The results suggest that access to care may affect response to chronic pain after TBI.

Distal and Proximal Predictors of Rehospitalization Over 10 Years Among Survivors of TBI: A National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the rates and causes of rehospitalization over a 10-year period following a moderate-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) utilizing the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) diagnostic coding scheme. SETTING: TBI Model Systems centers. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals 16 years and older with a primary diagnosis of TBI. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. MAIN MEASURES: Rehospitalization (and reason for rehospitalization) as reported by participants or their proxies during follow-up telephone interviews at 1, 2, 5, and 10 years postinjury. RESULTS: The greatest number of rehospitalizations occurred in the first year postinjury (23.4% of the sample), and the rates of rehospitalization remained stable (21.1%-20.9%) at 2 and 5 years postinjury and then decreased slightly (18.6%) at 10 years postinjury. Reasons for rehospitalization varied over time, but seizure was the most common reason at 1, 2, and 5 years postinjury. Other common reasons were related to need for procedures (eg, craniotomy or craniectomy) or medical comorbid conditions (eg, diseases of the heart, bacterial infections, or fractures). Multivariable logistic regression models showed that Functional Independence Measure (FIM) Motor score at time of discharge from inpatient rehabilitation was consistently associated with rehospitalization at all time points. Other factors associated with future rehospitalization over time included a history of rehospitalization, presence of seizures, need for craniotomy/craniectomy during acute hospitalization, as well as older age and greater physical and mental health comorbidities. CONCLUSION: Using diagnostic codes to characterize reasons for rehospitalization may facilitate identification of baseline (eg, FIM Motor score or craniotomy/craniectomy) and proximal (eg, seizures or prior rehospitalization) factors that are associated with rehospitalization. Information about reasons for rehospitalization can aid healthcare system planning. By identifying those recovering from TBI at a higher risk for rehospitalization, providing closer monitoring may help decrease the healthcare burden by preventing rehospitalization.

Intersectionality of Systemic Disadvantage on Mortality and Care Following TBI.

BACKGROUND: People of color (POC), especially those who also hold social identities associated with disadvantage (non-English-speaking, female, older, lower socioeconomic level), continue to be underserved in the health system, which can result in poorer care and worsened health outcomes. Most disparity research in traumatic brain injury (TBI) focuses on the impact of single factors, which misses the compounding effect of belonging to multiple historically marginalized groups. OBJECTIVE: To examine the intersectional impact of multiple social identities vulnerable to systemic disadvantage following TBI on mortality, opioid usage during acute hospitalization, and discharge location. METHODS: Retrospective observational design utilizing electronic health records merged with local trauma registry data. Patient groups were defined by race and ethnicity (POC or non-Hispanic White), age, sex, type of insurance, and primary language (English-speaking vs non-English-speaking). Latent class analysis (LCA) was performed to identify clusters of systemic disadvantage. Outcome measures were then assessed across latent classes and tested for differences. RESULTS: Over an 8-year period, 10 809 admissions with TBI occurred (37% POC). LCA identified a 4-class model. Groups with more systemic disadvantage had higher rates of mortality. Classes with older populations had lower rates of opioid administration and were less likely to discharge to inpatient rehabilitation following acute care. Sensitivity analyses examining additional indicators of TBI severity demonstrated that the younger group with more systemic disadvantage had more severe TBI. Controlling for more indicators of TBI severity changed statistical significance in mortality for younger groups. CONCLUSION: Results demonstrate significant health inequities in the mortality and access to inpatient rehabilitation following TBI along with higher rates of severe injury in younger patients with more social disadvantages. While many inequities may be related to systemic racism, our findings suggested an additive, deleterious effect for patients who belonged to multiple historically disadvantaged groups. Further research is needed to understand the role of systemic disadvantage for individuals with TBI within the healthcare system.

Disparities in Chronic Pain Experience and Treatment History Among Persons With Traumatic Brain Injury: A Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine disparities in pain severity, pain interference, and history of pain treatment for non-Hispanic Whites, non-Hispanic Blacks, and Hispanics with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and chronic pain. SETTING: Community following discharge from inpatient rehabilitation. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 621 individuals with medically documented moderate to severe TBI who had received acute trauma care and inpatient rehabilitation (440 non-Hispanic Whites, 111 non-Hispanic Blacks, and 70 Hispanics). DESIGN: A multicenter, cross-sectional, survey study. MAIN MEASURES: Brief Pain Inventory; receipt of opioid prescription; receipt of nonpharmacologic pain treatments; and receipt of comprehensive interdisciplinary pain rehabilitation. RESULTS: After controlling for relevant sociodemographic variables, non-Hispanic Blacks reported greater pain severity and greater pain interference relative to non-Hispanic Whites. Race/ethnicity interacted with age, such that the differences between Whites and Blacks were greater for older participants (for severity and interference) and for those with less than a high school education (for interference). There were no differences found between the racial/ethnic groups in the odds of having ever received pain treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Among individuals with TBI who report chronic pain, non-Hispanic Blacks may be more vulnerable to difficulties managing pain severity and to interference of pain in activities and mood. Systemic biases experienced by many Black individuals with regard to social determinants of health must be considered in a holistic approach to assessing and treating chronic pain in individuals with TBI.

Acupuncture use for pain after traumatic brain injury: a NIDILRR Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Pain after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common and can become chronic. Acupuncture is an increasingly popular non-pharmacologic option in the United States and is commonly used for pain. OBJECTIVE: We explored demographics, injury characteristics, and pain characteristics of individuals who reported using acupuncture for chronic pain after TBI. METHODS: We analyzed a subset of data collected as part of the Pain After Traumatic Brain Injury collaborative study and identified individuals reporting a history of acupuncture as part of management for chronic pain after TBI. We characterized and compared basic demographic data, pain treatment engagements, pain severity, pain interference, functional independence, and pain locations using descriptive and inferential statistics. RESULTS: Our sample included 1,064 individuals. Acupuncture use (n = 208) was lower proportionally among females, Blacks/African Americans, Asians, less educated, and nonmilitary service members. Insurance type varied between acupuncture and non-acupuncture users. Functional and pain outcomes were similar, but acupuncture users reported a higher number of pain sites. DISCUSSION: Acupuncture is one treatment utilized by individuals with TBI and chronic pain. Further investigation would be helpful to understand the barriers and facilitators of acupuncture use to inform clinical trials to examine the potential benefit of acupuncture on pain outcomes after TBI.

Toward Improving the Prediction of Functional Ambulation After Spinal Cord Injury Through the Inclusion of Limb Accelerations During Sleep and Personal Factors.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if functional measures of ambulation can be accurately classified using clinical measures; demographics; personal, psychosocial, and environmental factors; and limb accelerations (LAs) obtained during sleep among individuals with chronic, motor incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) in an effort to guide future, longitudinal predictions models. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, 1-5 days of data collection. SETTING: Community-based data collection. PARTICIPANTS: Adults with chronic (>1 year), motor incomplete SCI (N=27). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Ambulatory ability based on the 10-m walk test (10MWT) or 6-minute walk test (6MWT) categorized as nonambulatory, household ambulator (0.01-0.44 m/s, 1-204 m), or community ambulator (>0.44 m/s, >204 m). A random forest model classified ambulatory ability using input features including clinical measures of strength, sensation, and spasticity; demographics; personal, psychosocial, and environmental factors including pain, environmental factors, health, social support, self-efficacy, resilience, and sleep quality; and LAs measured during sleep. Machine learning methods were used explicitly to avoid overfitting and minimize the possibility of biased results. RESULTS: The combination of LA, clinical, and demographic features resulted in the highest classification accuracies for both functional ambulation outcomes (10MWT=70.4%, 6MWT=81.5%). Adding LAs, personal, psychosocial, and environmental factors, or both increased the accuracy of classification compared with the clinical/demographic features alone. Clinical measures of strength and sensation (especially knee flexion strength), LA measures of movement smoothness, and presence of pain and comorbidities were among the most important features selected for the models. CONCLUSIONS: The addition of LA and personal, psychosocial, and environmental features increased functional ambulation classification accuracy in a population with incomplete SCI for whom improved prognosis for mobility outcomes is needed. These findings provide support for future longitudinal studies that use LA; personal, psychosocial, and environmental factors; and advanced analyses to improve clinical prediction rules for functional mobility outcomes.

The Utility of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) Sleep Disturbance Item as a Screener for Insomnia in Individuals With Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the utility of the sleep disturbance item of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) as a screening tool for insomnia among individuals with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Telephone interview. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of 248 individuals with a history of moderate to severe TBI participated in an interview within 2 years of their injury. DESIGN: Observational, cross-sectional analysis. MAIN MEASURES: The PHQ-9 was administered along with the Insomnia Severity Index, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Sleep Hygiene Index, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, and the Insomnia Interview Schedule. RESULTS: Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was conducted for the PHQ-9 sleep item rating against a set of insomnia criteria to determine an optimal cutoff score. A cutoff of 2 on the PHQ-9 sleep item maximized sensitivity (76%) and specificity (79%), with an area under the curve of 0.79 (95% CI, 0.70-0.88). The 2 groups formed using this cutoff differed significantly on all sleep measures except the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. CONCLUSIONS: The PHQ-9 sleep item may serve as a useful screener to allow for detection of potential sleep disturbance among individuals with moderate to severe TBI. Those who screen positive using this item included in a commonly used measure of depression can be prioritized for further and more comprehensive assessment of sleep disorders.