Psychiatric in-patient care in England: as safe as it can be? An examination of in-patient suicide between 2009 and 2020.

BACKGROUND: Psychiatric in-patients have a greatly elevated risk of suicide. We aimed to examine trends in in-patient suicide rates and determine if characteristics of in-patients who died by suicide have changed over time. METHODS: We identified all in-patients in England who died by suicide between 2009 and 2020 from the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health. Suicide rates were calculated using data from Hospital Episodes Statistics. RESULTS: The rate of in-patient suicide per 100 000 bed days fell by 41.9% between 2009-2011 and 2018-2020. However, since 2016 the rate has remained static with no significant fall. Rates fell in men, those aged 30-59, and those with schizophrenia and other delusional disorders or personality disorder. Rates also fell for suicide by hanging (including hanging on the ward) and jumping. No falls were seen in suicide rates among women, younger and older age groups, and those with affective disorder. There was no indication of a transfer of risk to the post-discharge period or to home treatment/crisis care. More in-patients in the latter part of the study were aged under 25, were on authorised leave, and had psychiatric comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: In-patient suicide has significantly fallen since 2009, suggesting patient safety may have improved. The recent slowdown in the fall in rates, however, highlights that renewed preventative efforts are needed. These should include a greater focus on women, younger and older patients, and those with affective disorder. Careful reviews prior to granting leave are important to ensure a safe transition into the community.

Suicide and self-harm in prisons: The challenge of service evaluation and prevention.

Very high rates of suicide and self-harm in prisons worldwide emphasise the need for evidence-based approaches to prevention. Real world evaluations of organisational changes and service developments within prisons could yield important insights, but there are challenges to achieving this, as we found from an evaluation in a single UK institution.

Suicide after leaving the UK Armed Forces 1996-2018: A cohort study.

BACKGROUND: There are comparatively few international studies investigating suicide in military veterans and no recent UK-wide studies. This is important because the wider context of being a UK Armed Forces (UKAF) veteran has changed in recent years following a period of intensive operations. We aimed to investigate the rate, timing, and risk factors for suicide in personnel who left the UKAF over a 23-year period. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We carried out a retrospective cohort study of suicide in personnel who left the regular UKAF between 1996 and 2018 linking national databases of discharged personnel and suicide deaths, using survival analysis to examine the risk of suicide in veterans compared to the general population and conditional logistic regression to investigate factors most strongly associated with suicide after discharge. The 458,058 individuals who left the UKAF accumulated over 5,852,100 person years at risk, with a median length of follow-up of 13 years, were mostly male (91%), and had a median age of 26 years at discharge. 1,086 (0.2%) died by suicide. The overall rate of suicide in veterans was slightly lower than the general population (standardised mortality ratio, SMR [95% confidence interval, CI] 94 [88 to 99]). However, suicide risk was 2 to 3 times higher in male and female veterans aged under 25 years than in the same age groups in the general population (age-specific mortality ratios ranging from 160 to 409). Male veterans aged 35 years and older were at reduced risk of suicide (age-specific mortality ratios 47 to 80). Male sex, Army service, discharge between the ages of 16 and 34 years, being untrained on discharge, and length of service under 10 years were associated with higher suicide risk. Factors associated with reduced risk included being married, a higher rank, and deployment on combat operations. The rate of contact with specialist NHS mental health services (273/1,086, 25%) was lowest in the youngest age groups (10% for 16- to 19-year-olds; 23% for 20- to 24-year-olds). Study limitations include the fact that information on veterans was obtained from administrative databases and the role of pre-service vulnerabilities and other factors that may have influenced later suicide risk could not be explored. In addition, information on contact with support services was only available for veterans in contact with specialist NHS mental health services and not for those in contact with other health and social care services. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we found suicide risk in personnel leaving the UKAF was not high but there are important differences according to age, with higher risk in young men and women. We found a number of factors which elevated the risk of suicide but deployment was associated with lower risk. The focus should be on improving and maintaining access to mental health care and social support for young service leavers, as well as implementing general suicide prevention measures for all veterans regardless of age.

Mental disorder in people convicted of homicide: long-term national trends in rates and court outcome.

BACKGROUND: Homicide rates have fallen markedly in the UK over the past decade. There has been little research on whether homicides by people with mental disorder have contributed to this downward trend. Furthermore, there is limited information on trends in court outcomes for people with mental disorder who commit homicide. AIMS: To examine trends in general population homicide and homicide by people with mental disorder, and to explore court outcome. METHOD: We conducted a national, consecutive case series of homicide in England and Wales (1997-2015). Data were received from the Home Office Statistics Unit of Home Office Science. Clinical information was obtained from psychiatric reports and mental health services. RESULTS: There has been a fall in the homicide rate in England and Wales since 2008. Despite this, the relative contribution of mental disorder as a proportion of all homicide has increased. Our findings also showed the inappropriate management of people with serious mental illness convicted of homicide. Of those who committed homicide and were diagnosed with schizophrenia, a third were imprisoned, and there was a marked fall in hospital order referrals. We found this to be linked to substance misuse comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: The proportional increase in homicide by people with schizophrenia suggests more complex factors may be driving rates, such as substance misuse. Addressing substance misuse comorbidity and maintaining engagement with services may help prevent patient homicide. Despite their complex needs, people with serious mental illness continue to be imprisoned. Improvements in assessment and the timely transfer of prisoners to health services are required.

Recession, recovery and suicide in mental health patients in England: time trend analysis.

BACKGROUND: The 2008 economic recession was associated with an increase in suicide internationally. Studies have focused on the impact in the general population with little consideration of the effect on people with a mental illness.AimsTo investigate suicide trends related to the recession in mental health patients in England. METHOD: Using regression models, we studied suicide trends in mental health patients in England before, during and after the recession and examined the demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients. We used data from the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health, a national data-set of all suicide deaths in the UK that includes detailed clinical information on those seen by services in the last 12 months before death. RESULTS: Between 2000 and 2016, there were 21 224 suicide deaths by patients aged 16 or over. For male patients, following a steady fall of 0.5% per quarter before the recession (quarterly percent change (QPC) 2000-2009 -0.46%, 95% CI -0.66 to -0.27), suicide rates showed an upward trend during the recession (QPC 2009-2011 2.37%, 95% CI -0.22 to 5.04). Recession-related rises in suicide were found in men aged 45-54 years, those who were unemployed or had a diagnosis of substance dependence/misuse. Between 2012 and 2016 there was a decrease in suicide in male patients despite an increasing number of patients treated. No significant recession-related trends were found in women. CONCLUSIONS: Recession-associated increases in suicide were seen in male mental health patients as well as the male general population, with those in mid-life at particular risk. Support and targeted interventions for patients with financial difficulties may help reduce the risk at times of economic hardship. Factors such as drug and alcohol misuse also need to be considered. Recent decreases in suicide may be related to an improved economic context or better mental healthcare.Declaration of interestN.K. is supported by Greater Manchester Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust. L.A. chairs the National Suicide Prevention Strategy Advisory Group at the Department of Health (of which N.K. is also a member) and is a non-executive Director for the Care Quality Commission. N.K. chairs the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) depression in adults guideline and was a topic expert member for the NICE suicide prevention guideline.

Mental health services, suicide and 7-day working.

BACKGROUND: Patients admitted to hospital at the weekend appear to be at increased risk of death compared with those admitted at other times. However, a 'weekend effect' has rarely been explored in mental health and there may also be other times of year when patients are vulnerable. AIMS: To investigate the timing of suicide in high-risk mental health patients. METHOD: We compared the incidence of suicide at the weekend v. during the week, and also in August (the month of junior doctor changeover) v. other months in in-patients, patients within 3 months of discharge and patients under the care of crisis resolution home treatment (CRHT) teams (2001-2013). RESULTS: The incidence of suicide was lower at the weekends for each group (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 0.88 (95% CI 0.79-0.99) for in-patients, IRR = 0.85 (95% CI 0.78-0.92) for post-discharge patients, IRR = 0.87 (95% CI 0.78-0.97) for CRHT patients). Patients who died by suicide were also less likely to have been admitted at weekends than during the week (IRR = 0.52 (95% CI 0.45-0.60)). The incidence of suicide in August was not significantly different from other months. CONCLUSIONS: We found evidence of a weekend effect for suicide risk among high-risk mental health patients, but with a 12-15% lower incidence at weekends. Our study does not support the claim that safety is compromised at weekends, at least in mental health services.

Suicide-related internet use among mental health patients who died by suicide in the UK: a national clinical survey with case-control analysis.

Background: Suicide-related internet use (SRIU) has been shown to be linked to suicide. However, there is limited research on SRIU among mental health patients, who are at 4 to 7 times increased risk of suicide compared to the general population. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the prevalence of SRIU among mental health patients who died by suicide in the UK and describing their characteristics. Methods: The study was carried out as part of the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH). Data were collected on sociodemographic, clinical, suicide characteristics and engagement in SRIU of patients who died by suicide between 2011 and 2021. The study utilised a case-control design to compare patients who engaged in suicide-related internet use with those who did not. Findings: The presence or absence of SRIU was known for 9875/17,347 (57%) patients; SRIU was known to be present in 759/9875 (8%) patients. The internet was most often used to obtain information on suicide methods (n = 523/759, 69%) and to visit pro-suicide websites (n = 250/759, 33%) with a significant overlap between the two (n = 152/759, 20%). Engaging in SRIU was present across all age groups. The case-control element of the study showed patients who were known to have engaged in SRIU were more likely to have been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (OR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.43-3.18), have a history of childhood abuse (OR = 1.70, 95% CI: 1.36-2.13) and to have received psychological treatment (OR = 1.43, 95% CI: 1.18-1.74) than controls. Additionally, these patients were more likely to have died on or near a salient date (OR = 2.11, 95% CI: 1.61-2.76), such as a birthday or anniversary. Interpretation: The findings affirm SRIU as a feature of suicide among patients of all ages and highlight that clinicians should inquire about SRIU during assessments. Importantly, as the most common type of SRIU can expand knowledge on suicide means, clinicians need to be aware of the association between SRIU and choice of methods. This may be particularly relevant for patients approaching a significant calendar event. Funding: The Healthcare Quality Improvement Partnership.

Suicide in individuals with eating disorders who had sought mental health treatment in England: a national retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Although studies have suggested a high risk of suicide in people with eating disorders, most studies have focused on suicidal ideation and attempts. There is little research on the characteristics of people with eating disorders who died by suicide, nor investigation of trends over time. We aimed to compare the characteristics of patients with eating disorders who died by suicide versus patients with other mental health diagnoses who died by suicide in England and to examine the trends in rates. METHODS: In this national retrospective cohort study, data on all people (aged ≥10 years) who died by suicide in England, UK, between Jan 1, 1997, and Dec 31, 2021, while under the care (within the previous 12 months) of mental health services were obtained from the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), in which clinical information is collected via a questionnaire completed by the mental health professional responsible for the patient's care. Incidence of suicide in, and demographic, clinical, and treatment characteristics of, patients with a diagnosis of eating disorder (as recorded by the treating clinician) who died by suicide were compared with patients with other mental health diagnoses who died by suicide within the same timeframe using univariable logistic regression analysis. People with related lived experience were involved in the study design, implementation, interpretation, and writing of the manuscript. FINDINGS: Of 119 446 people for whom NCISH were notified of dying by suicide in England, 30 795 were under the recent care of mental health services, of whom 30 246 had known diagnoses and were included in analyses. Of these individuals, 10 373 (34%) were female and 19 873 (66%) were male; 2236 (8%) were of minority ethnicity; 382 (1%) had a diagnosis of eating disorder and 29 864 (99%) had another mental health diagnosis. Compared with patients with other mental health diagnoses who died by suicide, patients with eating disorders were younger (median age 33 years [range 15-90] vs 45 years [10-100]), more often female (343 [90%] female and 39 [10%] male in the eating disorders group; 10 030 [34%] female and 19 834 [66%] male in the other diagnoses group), and less likely to have evidence of conventional risk factors for suicide such as living alone (odds ratio [OR] 0·68, 95% CI 0·55-0·84). 22 (6%) of 382 were from a minority ethnic group. Patients with an eating disorder were characterised by a greater clinical complexity (eg, self-harm [OR 2·31, 95% CI 1·78-3·00], comorbidity [9·79, 6·81-14·1], and longer duration of illness [1·95, 1·56-2·43]), and were more likely to have died following overdoses (2·00, 1·62-2·45) than patients with other diagnoses. Childhood abuse (52 [37%] of 140) and domestic violence (18 [20%] of 91) were common in patients with eating disorders. Similar to patients with other diagnoses, most (244 [75%] of 326) of those with eating disorders who died by suicide were rated as low risk by clinicians at last contact. The number of suicide deaths in patients with eating disorders rose between 1997 and 2021 (incidence rate ratio [IRR] 1·03, 95% CI 1·02-1·05; p<0·0001), but rates fell when accounting for the greater number of patients entering mental health services (IRR 0·97, 0·95-1·00; p=0·033). INTERPRETATION: This study was focused on people who sought help from mental health services. It did not consider subtypes of eating disorders or include a control group, but it does highlight possible areas for intervention. The comprehensive provision of evidence-based treatment for eating disorders and underlying conditions to address the clinical complexity in these patients might help to reduce suicide. Recognising limitations in clinical risk assessment, addressing early life experiences and current adversities, and appropriate prescribing might also be of benefit. Suicide prevention must remain a priority for eating disorder services and mental health care more widely. FUNDING: The Healthcare Quality Improvement Partnership.

Contacts with primary and secondary healthcare before suicide by those under the care of mental health services: case-control, whole-population-based study using person-level linked routine data in Wales, UK during 2000-2015.

BACKGROUND: People under the care of mental health services are at increased risk of suicide. Existing studies are small in scale and lack comparisons. AIMS: To identify opportunities for suicide prevention and underpinning data enhancement in people with recent contact with mental health services. METHOD: This population-based study includes people who died by suicide in the year following a mental health services contact in Wales, 2001-2015 (cases), paired with similar patients who did not die by suicide (controls). We linked the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health and the Suicide Information Database - Cymru with primary and secondary healthcare records. We present results of conditional logistic regression. RESULTS: We matched 1031 cases with 5155 controls. In the year before their death, 98.3% of cases were in contact with healthcare services, and 28.5% presented with self-harm. Cases had more emergency department contacts (odds ratio 2.4, 95% CI 2.1-2.7) and emergency hospital admissions (odds ratio 1.5, 95% CI 1.4-1.7), but fewer primary care contacts (odds ratio 0.7, 95% CI 0.6-0.9) and out-patient appointments (odds ratio 0.2, 95% CI 0.2-0.3) than controls. Odds ratios were larger in females than males for injury and poisoning (odds ratio: 3.3 (95% CI 2.5-4.5) v. 2.6 (95% CI 2.1-3.1)). CONCLUSIONS: We may be missing existing opportunities to intervene, particularly in emergency departments and hospital admissions with self-harm presentations and with unattributed self-harm, especially in females. Prevention efforts should focus on strengthening routine care contacts, responding to emergency contacts and better self-harm care. There are benefits to enhancing clinical audit systems with routinely collected data.

Recent GP consultation before death by suicide in middle-aged males: a national consecutive case series study.

BACKGROUND: Reducing suicide risk in middle-aged males (40-54 years) is a national priority. People have often presented to their GP within 3 months before suicide thus highlighting an opportunity for early intervention. AIM: To describe the sociodemographic characteristics and identify antecedents in middle-aged males who recently consulted a GP before dying by suicide. DESIGN AND SETTING: This study was a descriptive examination of suicide in a national consecutive sample of middle-aged males in 2017 in England, Scotland, and Wales. METHOD: General population mortality data were obtained from the Office for National Statistics and National Records of Scotland. Information was collected about antecedents considered relevant to suicide from data sources. Logistic regression examined associations with final recent GP consultation. Males with lived experience were consulted during the study. RESULTS: In 2017, a quarter (n = 1516) of all suicide deaths were in middle-aged males. Data were attained on 242 males: 43% had their last GP consultation within 3 months of suicide; and a third of these males were unemployed and nearly half were living alone. Males who saw a GP recently before suicide were more likely to have had recent self-harm and work-related problems than males who had not. Having a current major physical illness, recent self-harm, presenting with a mental health problem, and recent work-related issues were associated with having a last GP consultation close to suicide. CONCLUSION: Clinical factors were identified that GPs should be alert to when assessing middle-aged males. Personalised holistic management may have a role in preventing suicide in these individuals.

Bereavement and suicide bereavement as an antecedent of suicide in children and young people: Prevalence and characteristics.

INTRODUCTION: There is limited research into bereavement and suicide bereavement as an antecedent of suicide in young people. METHODS: We extracted information on the antecedents of suicide from official reports, primarily coroner inquests, on a 3-year national consecutive case series of all UK deaths by suicide in people aged 10-19. RESULTS: Between 2014 and 2016, there were 595 suicides by young people. 134 (25%) had been previously or recently bereaved; 51 (9%) by suicide, mainly of a friend or acquaintance. This is equivalent to 1 in 4 and 1 in 11, respectively, of all young people who die by suicide. Bereavement added to existing adversities - many antecedents of suicide were more likely in young people who were bereaved compared to those who were not, but there were few differences in the experiences of young people bereaved by suicide compared to other causes. LIMITATIONS: This was an observational, not a risk factor study, and we did not use a control group. It is difficult to obtain data on non-suicide controls due to the ethical implications in contacting families, and the fact of suicide itself, its impact on disclosure and the reluctance of potential controls distorting any comparisons. CONCLUSION: Lasting bereavement support needs to be routinely and immediately available for young people, including those who have experienced the death of a friend or acquaintance. Vigilance of agencies for bereaved young people is required, especially if there is evidence of other adversities.

Suicide in England in the COVID-19 pandemic: Early observational data from real time surveillance.

BACKGROUND: There have been concerns that the COVID-19 pandemic may lead to an increase in suicide. The coronial system in England is not suitable for timely monitoring of suicide because of the delay of several months before inquests are held. METHODS: We used data from established systems of "real time surveillance" (RTS) of suspected suicides, in areas covering a total population of around 13 million, to test the hypothesis that the suicide rate rose after the first national lockdown began in England. FINDINGS: The number of suicides in April-October 2020, after the first lockdown began, was 121•3 per month, compared to 125•7 per month in January-March 2020 (-4%; 95% CI-19% to 13%, p = 0•59). Incidence rate ratios did not show a significant rise in individual months after lockdown began and were not raised during the 2-month lockdown period April-May 2020 (IRR: 1•01 [0•81-1•25]) or the 5-month period after the easing of lockdown, June-October 2020 (0•94 [0•81-1•09]). Comparison of the suicide rates after lockdown began in 2020 for the same months in selected areas in 2019 showed no difference. INTERPRETATION: We did not find a rise in suicide rates in England in the months after the first national lockdown began in 2020, despite evidence of greater distress. However, a number of caveats apply. These are early figures and may change. Any effect of the pandemic may vary by population group or geographical area. The use of RTS in this way is new and further development is needed before it can provide full national data. FUNDING: This study was funded by the Healthcare Quality Improvement Partnership (HQIP).The HQIP is led by a consortium of the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, the Royal College of Nursing, and National Voices. Its aim is to promote quality improvement in patient outcomes, and in particular, to increase the impact that clinical audit, outcome review programs and registries have on healthcare quality in England and Wales. HQIP holds the contract to commission, manage, and develop the National Clinical Audit and Patient Outcomes Program (NCAPOP), comprising around 40 projects covering care provided to people with a wide range of medical, surgical and mental health conditions. The program is funded by NHS England, the Welsh Government and, with some individual projects, other devolved administrations, and crown dependencies.

Suicide rates by ethnic group among patients in contact with mental health services: an observational cohort study in England and Wales.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence on suicide rates among psychiatric patients from minority ethnic backgrounds is scarce. We aimed to examine suicide rates among minority ethnic psychiatric patients and describe their social and clinical characteristics. METHODS: We did a retrospective observational cohort study on a national case-series of patients in England and Wales who died by suicide within 12 months of contact with mental health services between 2007 and 2018. Data were collected as part of the National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health. Suicide rates and standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) were estimated for South Asian (Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi), Black African, Black Caribbean, Chinese, and White patients. FINDINGS: A total of 698 patients in the four minority ethnic groups of South Asian, Black Caribbean, Black African, and Chinese were included (482 [69%] men; 216 [31%] women; mean age 41 years [SD 14·9, range 12-91] and compared with 13 567 White patients (9030 [66·6%] men; 4537 [33·4%] women; mean age 48 years [SD 15·8, range 10-100]). Rates and SMRs for suicide among minority ethnic patients were lower than for White patients (2·73 deaths, 95% CI 2·68-2·78) per 100 000 population. Differences were found between ethnic groups with higher suicide rates in Black Caribbean patients (1·89 deaths [95% CI 1·55-2·23] per 100 000 population) and lower rates in South Asian patients (1·49 deaths [1·33-1·64] per 100 000 population). There was an increase in rates among White patients in 2007-12 followed by a fall but no change among other ethnic groups. Schizophrenia was more common among Black African patients (54%) and Black Caribbean patients (44%), while affective disorder was more common among South Asian patients (41%). Minority ethnic patients overall showed markers of social adversity and received higher intensity care yet were viewed by clinicians as at lower risk than White patients. INTERPRETATION: Effective approaches to prevention might differ between minority ethnic groups. Clinicians and the services in which they work should be aware of the common and distinct social and clinical needs of minority ethnic patients with mental illness. FUNDING: The Healthcare Quality Improvement Partnership.

Simplified method for international normalized ratio (INR) derivation based on the prothrombin time/INR line: an international study.

BACKGROUND: The need to perform local International Sensitivity Index (ISI) calibrations and in particular the requirement for a manual method for prothrombin time (PT) determination, have proved to be obstacles to application of the WHO scheme for PT standardization. METHODS: We used international normalized ratio (INR) derived with a set of only 5 European Concerted Action on Anticoagulation (ECAA) lyophilized calibrant plasmas, certified manually by expert centers with reference thromboplastins, to determine a local PT/INR Line. We compared results of an independent set of validation plasmas with INRs from conventional ISI calibrations and with manually certified INRs. RESULTS: The mean certified INR of 5 lyophilized validation plasmas was 2.41 with human thromboplastin, 2.04 with bovine/combined, and 2.80 with rabbit. With 42 human reagents, the mean observed INR of the validation plasmas was 2.68 (11.2% deviation from certified INR). Deviation was reduced to 0.4% with both local ISI calibration and the PT/INR Line. Eight results based on bovine/combined thromboplastin gave an INR deviation of 4.9%, becoming 0.5% after ISI calibration and 2.4% with the PT/INR Line. Six results with rabbit reagents deviated from certified INR by 2.5%. After ISI calibration, deviation became 1.1%, and with the PT/INR Line, 0.7%. The PT/INR Line gave similar results with both linear and orthogonal regression analysis. The total proportion of validation plasmas giving INR within 10% deviation from certified values was 42.5% with uncorrected INR, which increased to 92.1% with local ISI calibration and 93.2% with the PT/INR Line. CONCLUSIONS: The PT/INR Line procedure with 5 ECAA calibrant plasmas successfully substitutes for local ISI calibrations in deriving reliable INRs.

Examining the mechanisms by which adverse life events affect having a history of self-harm, and the protective effect of social support.

BACKGROUND: Psychological models of suicide emphasize perceptions of negative stressors, hopelessness and self-harm as key antecedents to suicidal thoughts/acts. Such models also emphasize the potential protective role of social support in these pathways. However, such pathways have not been tested using population level data. Hence, this study aimed to redress this gap. METHODS: Questionnaire data regarding 24,444 patient suicide deaths were analysed. All individuals died between 1996 and 2015 and were seen by secondary mental health services in England within 12 months before their death. Mediation analyses, using fitted logistic regression models, investigated direct and indirect pathways between negative stressors, hopelessness and a proxy measure of suicide, namely, self-harm history. In addition, the buffering effects of social support were examined in these pathways. RESULTS: There was a direct effect of negative life events on suicidal behaviors. Supporting contemporary psychological models of suicide, a mediated effect via hopelessness and a protective effect of social support were identified. Social support buffered the pathway between stressful life events and hopelessness, with hopelessness decreasing as social support increased. LIMITATIONS: Causal inferences are inappropriate as the design was cross-sectional. A proxy measure of suicidality was utilized (history of self-harm) as all individuals had died by suicide. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time that population data has been used to test psychological pathways to suicidal acts involving negative stressors, hopelessness and social support. Psychological interventions should focus on increasing social support following negative life events together with ameliorating perceptions of hopelessness.

Suicide rates and voting choice in the UK's 2016 national Brexit referendum on European Union membership: cross-sectional ecological investigation across England's local authority populations.

BACKGROUND: Individual- and area-level risk factors for suicide are relatively well-understood but the role of macro social factors such as alienation, social fragmentation or 'anomie' is relatively underresearched. Voting choice in the 2016 referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union (EU) provides a potential measure of anomie. AIMS: To examine associations between percentage 'Leave' votes in the EU referendum and suicide rates in 2015-2017, the period just prior to, and following, the referendum. METHOD: National cross-sectional ecological study of 315 English local authority populations. Associations between voting choice in the EU referendum and age-standardised suicide rates, averaged for the years 2015, 2016 and 2017, were examined. RESULTS: Overall there was a weak, but statistically significant, positive correlation between the local authority-level percentage 'Leave' vote in 2016 and the suicide rate 2015-2017: Pearson's correlation coefficient, r = 0.17; P = 0.003. This relationship was explained by populations having an older age distribution, being more deprived and lacking ethnic diversity. However, there was divergence (likelihood ratio test for interaction, χ2 = 7.2, P = 0.007) in the observed associations between London and the provincial regions with Greater London having a moderately strong negative association (r = -0.40; P = 0.02) and the rest of England a weak positive association (r = 0.17; P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: Deprivation, older age distribution and a lack of ethnic diversity seems to explain raised suicide risk in Brexit-voting communities. A greater sense of alienation among people feeling 'left behind'/'left out' may have had some influence too, although multilevel modelling of individual- versus area-level data are needed to examine these complex relationships. The incongruent ecological relationship observed for London likely reflect its distinct social, economic and health context.

Children and young people who die by suicide: childhood-related antecedents, gender differences and service contact.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide suicide is commonest in young people and in many countries, including the UK, suicide rates in young people are rising. AIMS: To investigate the stresses young people face before they take their lives, their contact with services that could be preventative and whether these differ in girls and boys. METHOD: We identified a 3-year UK national consecutive case series of deaths by suicide in people aged 10-19, based on national mortality data. We extracted information on the antecedents of suicide from official investigations, primarily inquests. RESULTS: Between 2014 and 2016, there were 595 suicides by young people, almost 200 per year; 71% were male (n = 425). Suicide rates increased from the mid-teens, most deaths occurred in those aged 17-19 (443, 74%). We obtained data about the antecedents of suicide for 544 (91%). A number of previous and recent stresses were reported including witnessing domestic violence, bullying, self-harm, bereavement (including by suicide) and academic pressures. These experiences were generally more common in girls than boys, whereas drug misuse (odds ratio (OR) = 0.54, 95% CI 0.35-0.83, P = 0.006) and workplace problems (OR 0.52, 95% CI 0.28-0.96, P = 0.04) were less common in girls. A total of 329 (60%) had been in contact with specialist children's services, and this was more common in girls (OR 1.86, 95% CI 1.19-2.94, P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: There are several antecedents to suicide in young people, particularly girls, which are important in a multiagency approach to prevention incorporating education, social care, health services and the third sector. Some of these may also have contributed to the recent rise.

Treatment of Mental Illness Prior to Suicide: A National Investigation of 12,909 patients, 2001-2016.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research suggests that up to 90% of individuals who die by suicide may have a mental disorder at the time of death but that levels of treatment may be low. This study aimed to examine undertreatment among patients with mental health conditions who died by suicide and to assess the association between patients' clinical and sociodemographic characteristics and treatment receipt. METHODS: The study's sample included 12,909 patients in England and Wales who died by suicide within 12 months of contact with mental health services between 2001 and 2016. All patients had received a diagnosis of bipolar affective disorder, schizophrenia, depression, or an anxiety disorder. Records of patients who were not receiving treatment as recommended by national clinical guidelines at the time of death were examined for levels of nonprescription of treatment and nonadherence. RESULTS: Twenty-four percent of the patients did not receive treatment, 11% had not been prescribed treatment, and 13% were nonadherent with treatment. These proportions differed by diagnosis. After adjustment for main primary diagnosis, analyses showed that being under age 40, unemployment, living alone, drug misuse, medication side effects, and comorbid personality disorder were independently associated with a decreased likelihood of receiving treatment. CONCLUSIONS: One-quarter of patients with mental health conditions who die by suicide may not be receiving relevant interventions at the time of death. Levels of and reasons for nontreatment vary by diagnosis, but measures to address comorbid diagnoses and implement interventions to improve adherence in specific groups could have an impact.

A multicentre randomised assessment of the DAWN AC computer-assisted oral anticoagulant dosage program.

Computer-assisted oral anticoagulant dosage is being increasingly used to meet growing demands for oral anticoagulation. The DAWN AC is one of the most widely used computer-dosage programs. Evidence of its value and that of other computer programs has been based previously only on laboratory evidence of "time in target INR range" (TIR) not on clinical safety in practice. A five-year international randomised clinical study of computer assistance with the DAWN AC program compared with manual dosage in 2,631 patients has been performed at 13 centres with established expertise in oral anticoagulation mainly in the EU. Safety assessment have been based on the comparison of bleeding or thrombotic events with DAWN AC compared with manual dosage in a randomised study. Safety of the DAWN AC program has been demonstrated. Clinical events of bleeding and thrombosis were almost identical with the experienced manual dosage group. Therapeutic control improved with DAWN AC to 66.8% from 63.4% TIR. The program failed to provide a dosage recommendation on only 5.7% of occasions. At a group of experienced centres with a special interest in oral anticoagulation, the DAWN AC computer-dosage program proved as safe clinically as manual dosage by experienced medical staff. With DAWN AC, laboratory control was improved, the difference being highly significant. The results should reassure hospitals and community clinics that the DAWN AC program is safe and facilitate greater and longer provision of warfarin treatment where required.

A multicentre randomised clinical endpoint study of PARMA 5 computer-assisted oral anticoagulant dosage.

To meet growing demand for oral anticoagulation worldwide there has been increased dependence on computer-assistance in dosage although the safety and effectiveness of any of the individual computer-assisted dosage programs has not previously been established. This randomised multicentre clinical end-point study assessed a new version of the PARMA 5 program. It compared PARMA 5 safety and effectiveness with manual dosage by experienced medical staff at 19 centres with a known interest in oral anticoagulation. Target recruitment was 8000 patient-years, randomised to medical staff or PARMA-5 assisted dosage. Safety and effectiveness of the PARMA 5 program was compared with manual dosage. A total of 10,421 patients were recruited (15,369 patient-years) in the 5-year study. International normalised ratio (INR) tests numbered 167,791 with manual and 160,078 with PARMA 5 dosage. With parma 5 there was overall a non-significant reduction in clinical events but in the 2542 patients with deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism, clinical events were significantly reduced (P = 0.005). Success in achieving 'time in target INR range' was also significantly greater with PARMA 5 compared with the dosage by experienced medical staff. This study demonstrated the safety and effectiveness of PARMA 5-assisted dosage.