Peptides as a platform for targeted therapeutics for cancer: peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs).

Peptides can offer the versatility needed for a successful oncology drug discovery approach. Peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs) are an emerging targeted therapeutic that present increased tumour penetration and selectivity. Despite these advantages, there are still limitations for the use of peptides as therapeutics exemplified through their slow progression to get into the clinic and limited oral bioavailability. New approaches to address these problems have been studied and successfully implemented to enhance the stability of peptides and their constructs. There is great promise for the future of PDCs with two molecules already on the market and many variations currently undergoing clinical trials, such as bicycle-toxin conjugates and peptide-dendrimer conjugates. This review summarises the entire process needed for the design and successful development of an oncology PDC including chemical and nanomaterial strategies to enhance peptide stability within circulation, the function of each component of a PDC construct, and current examples in clinical trials.

Chemical probes targeting the kinase CK2: a journey outside the catalytic box.

CK2 is a protein kinase that plays important roles in many physio-pathological cellular processes. As such, the development of chemical probes for CK2 has received increasing attention in the past decade with more than 40 lead compounds developed. In this review, we aim to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the chemical probes acting outside the highly-conserved ATP-site developed to date. Such probes belong to different classes of molecules spanning from small molecules to peptides, act with a range of mechanisms of action and some of them present themselves as promising tools to investigate the biology of CK2 and therefore develop therapeutics for many disease areas including cancer and COVID-19.

Downfalls of Chemical Probes Acting at the Kinase ATP-Site: CK2 as a Case Study.

Protein kinases are a large class of enzymes with numerous biological roles and many have been implicated in a vast array of diseases, including cancer and the novel coronavirus infection COVID-19. Thus, the development of chemical probes to selectively target each kinase is of great interest. Inhibition of protein kinases with ATP-competitive inhibitors has historically been the most widely used method. However, due to the highly conserved structures of ATP-sites, the identification of truly selective chemical probes is challenging. In this review, we use the Ser/Thr kinase CK2 as an example to highlight the historical challenges in effective and selective chemical probe development, alongside recent advances in the field and alternative strategies aiming to overcome these problems. The methods utilised for CK2 can be applied to an array of protein kinases to aid in the discovery of chemical probes to further understand each kinase's biology, with wide-reaching implications for drug development.

General dual functionalisation of biomacromolecules via a cysteine bridging strategy.

Site-selective modification of peptides and proteins has resulted in the development of a host of novel tools for the study of cellular systems or the synthesis of enhanced biotherapeutics. There is a need for useful methodologies that enable site-selective modification of native peptides or proteins, which is even more prevalent when modification of the biomolecule with multiple payloads is desired. Herein, we report the development of a novel dual functional divinylpyrimidine (dfDVP) platform that enables robust and modular modification of peptides, antibody fragments and antibodies. These biomacromolecules could be easily functionalised with a range of functional payloads (e.g. fluorescent dyes, cytotoxic warheads or cell-penetrating tags). Importantly, the dual functionalised peptides and antibodies demonstrated exquisite bioactivity in a range of in vitro cellular assays, showcasing the enhanced utility of these bioactive conjugates.

Novel non-ATP competitive small molecules targeting the CK2 α/ß interface.

Increased CK2 levels are prevalent in many cancers. Combined with the critical role CK2 plays in many cell-signaling pathways, this makes it a prime target for down regulation to fight tumour growth. Herein, we report a fragment-based approach to inhibiting the interaction between CK2α and CK2ß at the α-ß interface of the holoenzyme. A fragment, CAM187, with an IC50 of 44 µM and a molecular weight of only 257 gmol-1 has been identified as the most promising compound. Importantly, the lead fragment only bound at the interface and was not observed in the ATP binding site of the protein when co-crystallised with CK2α. The fragment-like molecules discovered in this study represent unique scaffolds to CK2 inhibition and leave room for further optimisation.

A fragment-based approach leading to the discovery of a novel binding site and the selective CK2 inhibitor CAM4066.

Recently we reported the discovery of a potent and selective CK2α inhibitor CAM4066. This compound inhibits CK2 activity by exploiting a pocket located outside the ATP binding site (αD pocket). Here we describe in detail the journey that led to the discovery of CAM4066 using the challenging fragment linking strategy. Specifically, we aimed to develop inhibitors by linking a high-affinity fragment anchored in the αD site to a weakly binding warhead fragment occupying the ATP site. Moreover, we describe the remarkable impact that molecular modelling had on the development of this novel chemical tool. The work described herein shows potential for the development of a novel class of CK2 inhibitors.

Database Extraction of Metabolite Information of Drug Candidates: Analysis of 27 AstraZeneca Compounds with Human Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion Data.

As part of the drug discovery and development process, it is important to understand the human metabolism of a candidate drug prior to clinical studies. Preclinical in vitro and in vivo experiments across species are conducted to build knowledge concerning human circulating metabolites in preparation for clinical studies; therefore, the quality of these experiments is critical. Within AstraZeneca, all metabolite identification (Met-ID) information is stored in a global database using ACDLabs software. In this study, the Met-ID information derived from in vitro and in vivo studies for 27 AstraZeneca drug candidates that underwent human absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion studies was extracted from the database. The retrospective analysis showed that 81% of human circulating metabolites were previously observed in preclinical in vitro and/or in vivo experiments. A detailed analysis was carried out to understand which human circulating metabolites were not captured in the preclinical experiments. Metabolites observed in human hepatocytes and rat plasma but not seen in circulation in humans (extraneous metabolites) were also investigated. The majority of human specific circulating metabolites derive from multistep biotransformation reactions that may not be observed in in vitro studies within the limited time frame in which cryopreserved hepatocytes are active. Factors leading to the formation of extraneous metabolites in preclinical studies seemed to be related to species differences with respect to transporter activity, secondary metabolism, and enzyme kinetics. This retrospective analysis assesses the predictive value of Met-ID experiments and improves our ability to discriminate between metabolites expected to circulate in humans and irrelevant metabolites seen in preclinical studies.

Binding Mode and Induced Fit Predictions for Prospective Computational Drug Design.

Computer-aided drug design plays an important role in medicinal chemistry to obtain insights into molecular mechanisms and to prioritize design strategies. Although significant improvement has been made in structure based design, it still remains a key challenge to accurately model and predict induced fit mechanisms. Most of the current available techniques either do not provide sufficient protein conformational sampling or are too computationally demanding to fit an industrial setting. The current study presents a systematic and exhaustive investigation of predicting binding modes for a range of systems using PELE (Protein Energy Landscape Exploration), an efficient and fast protein-ligand sampling algorithm. The systems analyzed (cytochrome P, kinase, protease, and nuclear hormone receptor) exhibit different complexities of ligand induced fit mechanisms and protein dynamics. The results are compared with results from classical molecular dynamics simulations and (induced fit) docking. This study shows that ligand induced side chain rearrangements and smaller to medium backbone movements are captured well in PELE. Large secondary structure rearrangements, however, remain challenging for all employed techniques. Relevant binding modes (ligand heavy atom RMSD < 1.0 Å) can be obtained by the PELE method within a few hours of simulation, positioning PELE as a tool applicable for rapid drug design cycles.

Oxime-based inhibitors of glucose transporter 1 displaying antiproliferative effects in cancer cells.

An analysis of the main pharmacophoric features present in the still limited number of inhibitors of glucose transporter GLUT1 led to the identification of new oxime-based inhibitors, which proved to be able to efficiently hinder glucose uptake and cell growth in H1299 lung cancer cells. The most important interactions of a representative inhibitor were indicated by a novel computational model of GLUT1, which was purposely developed to explain these results and to provide useful indications for the design and the development of new and more efficient GLUT1 inhibitors.

Hybrid Androgen Receptor Inhibitors Outperform Enzalutamide and EPI-001 in in†vitro Models of Prostate Cancer Drug Resistance.

Androgen receptor targeted therapies for prostate cancer have serious limitations in advanced stages of the disease. While resistance to the FDA-approved enzalutamide is extensively documented, novel therapies based on epichlorohydrin scaffolds (EPI) are currently in clinical trials, but display suboptimal pharmacokinetics. Herein, we report the synthesis and biological characterisation of a novel class of compounds designed through covalently linking enzalutamide and EPI-001 through various triazole based linkers. The compounds display an 18 to 53 fold improvement in the cell killing potency towards C4-2b prostate cancer (PCa) cells compared to the gold standards of therapy, enzalutamide and EPI-001. The most promising compounds were proven to exhibit their toxicity exclusively through androgen receptor (AR) mediated pathways. This work sets the basis for the first class of hybrid AR inhibitors which successfully combine two drug moieties - EPI-001 and enzalutamide - into the same molecule.

A cell-active cyclic peptide targeting the Nrf2/Keap1 protein-protein interaction.

The disruption of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) between Nrf2 and Keap1 is an attractive strategy to counteract the oxidative stress that characterises a variety of severe diseases. Peptides represent a complementary approach to small molecules for the inhibition of this therapeutically important PPI. However, due to their polar nature and the negative net charge required for binding to Keap1, the peptides reported to date exhibit either mid-micromolar activity or are inactive in cells. Herein, we present a two-component peptide stapling strategy to rapidly access a variety of constrained and functionalised peptides that target the Nrf2/Keap1 PPI. The most promising peptide, P8-H containing a fatty acid tag, binds to Keap1 with nanomolar affinity and is effective at inducing transcription of ARE genes in a human lung epithelial cell line at sub-micromolar concentration. Furthermore, crystallography of the peptide in complex with Keap1 yielded a high resolution X-ray structure, adding to the toolbox of structures available to develop cell-permeable peptidomimetic inhibitors.

Development of small cyclic peptides targeting the CK2α/ß interface.

In this work, an iterative cycle of enzymatic assays, X-ray crystallography, molecular modelling and cellular assays were used to develop a functionalisable chemical probe for the CK2α/ß PPI. The lead peptide, P8C9, successfully binds to CK2α at the PPI site, is easily synthesisable and functionalisable, highly stable in serum and small enough to accommodate further optimisation.

A fragment-based approach leading to the discovery of inhibitors of CK2α with a novel mechanism of action.

CK2 is a ubiquitous protein kinase with an anti-apoptotic role and is found to be overexpressed in multiple cancer types. To this end, the inhibition of CK2 is of great interest with regard to the development of novel anti-cancer therapeutics. ATP-site inhibition of CK2 is possible; however, this typically results in poor selectivity due to the highly conserved nature of the catalytic site amongst kinases. An alternative methodology for the modulation of CK2 activity is through allosteric inhibition. The recently identified αD site represents a promising binding site for allosteric inhibition of CK2α. The work presented herein describes the development of a series of CK2α allosteric inhibitors through iterative cycles of X-ray crystallography and enzymatic assays, in addition to both fragment growing and fragment merging design strategies. The lead fragment developed, fragment 8, exhibits a high ligand efficiency, displays no drop off in activity between enzymatic and cellular assays, and successfully engages CK2α in cells. Furthermore, X-ray crystallographic analysis provided indications towards a novel mechanism of allosteric inhibition through αD site binding. Fragments described in this paper therefore represent promising starting points for the development of highly selective allosteric CK2 inhibitors.

Efficient development of stable and highly functionalised peptides targeting the CK2α/CK2ß protein-protein interaction.

The discovery of new Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) modulators is currently limited by the difficulties associated with the design and synthesis of selective small molecule inhibitors. Peptides are a potential solution for disrupting PPIs; however, they typically suffer from poor stability in vivo and limited tissue penetration hampering their wide spread use as new chemical biology tools and potential therapeutics. In this work, a combination of CuAAC chemistry, molecular modelling, X-ray crystallography, and biological validation allowed us to develop highly functionalised peptide PPI inhibitors of the protein CK2. The lead peptide, CAM7117, prevents the formation of the holoenzyme assembly in vitro, slows down proliferation, induces apoptosis in cancer cells and is stable in human serum. CAM7117 could aid the development of novel CK2 inhibitors acting at the interface and help to fully understand the intracellular pathways involving CK2. Importantly, the approach adopted herein could be applied to many PPI targets and has the potential to ease the study of PPIs by efficiently providing access to functionalised peptides.

Targeted covalent inhibitors of MDM2 using electrophile-bearing stapled peptides.

Herein, we describe the development of a novel staple with an electrophilic warhead to enable the generation of stapled peptide covalent inhibitors of the p53-MDM2 protein-protein interaction (PPI). The peptide developed showed complete and selective covalent binding resulting in potent inhibition of p53-MDM2 PPI.

Second-generation CK2α inhibitors targeting the αD pocket.

CK2 is a critical cell cycle regulator that also promotes various anti-apoptotic mechanisms. Development of ATP-non-competitive inhibitors of CK2 is a very attractive strategy considering that the ATP binding site is highly conserved among other kinases. We have previously utilised a pocket outside the active site to develop a novel CK2 inhibitor, CAM4066. Whilst CAM4066 bound to this new pocket it was also interacting with the ATP site: herein, we describe an example of a CK2α inhibitor that binds completely outside the active site. This second generation αD-site binding inhibitor, compound CAM4712 (IC50 = 7 µM, GI50 = 10.0 ± 3.6 µM), has numerous advantages over the previously reported CAM4066, including a reduction in the number of rotatable bonds, the absence of amide groups susceptible to the action of proteases and improved cellular permeability. Unlike with CAM4066, there was no need to facilitate cellular uptake by making a prodrug. Moreover, CAM4712 displayed no drop off between its ability to inhibit the kinase in vitro (IC50) and the ability to inhibit cell proliferation (GI50).

Stapled peptides as a new technology to investigate protein-protein interactions in human platelets.

Platelets are blood cells with numerous crucial pathophysiological roles in hemostasis, cardiovascular thrombotic events and cancer metastasis. Platelet activation requires the engagement of intracellular signalling pathways that involve protein-protein interactions (PPIs). A better understanding of these pathways is therefore crucial for the development of selective anti-platelet drugs. New strategies for studying PPIs in human platelets are required to overcome limitations associated with conventional platelet research methods. For example, small molecule inhibitors can lack selectivity and are often difficult to design and synthesise. Additionally, development of transgenic animal models is costly and time-consuming and conventional recombinant techniques are ineffective due to the lack of a nucleus in platelets. Herein, we describe the generation of a library of novel, functionalised stapled peptides and their first application in the investigation of platelet PPIs. Moreover, the use of platelet-permeable stapled Bim BH3 peptides confirms the part of Bim in phosphatidyl-serine (PS) exposure and reveals a role for the Bim protein in platelet activatory processes. Our work demonstrates that functionalised stapled peptides are a complementary alternative to conventional platelet research methods, and could make a significant contribution to the understanding of platelet signalling pathways and hence to the development of anti-platelet drugs.

Salicylketoximes That Target Glucose Transporter†1 Restrict Energy Supply to Lung Cancer Cells.

The glucose transporter GLUT1 is frequently overexpressed in most tumor tissues because rapidly proliferating cancer cells rely primarily on glycolysis, a low-efficiency metabolic pathway that necessitates a very high rate of glucose consumption. Because blocking GLUT1 is a promising anticancer strategy, we developed a novel class of GLUT1 inhibitors based on the 4-aryl-substituted salicylketoxime scaffold. Some of these compounds are efficient inhibitors of glucose uptake in lung cancer cells and have a notable antiproliferative effect. In contrast to their 5-aryl-substituted regioisomers, the newly synthesized compounds reported herein do not display significant binding to the estrogen receptors. The inhibition of glucose uptake in cancer cells by these compounds was further observed by fluorescence microscopy imaging using a fluorescent analogue of glucose. Therefore, blocking the ability of tumor cells to take up glucose by means of these small molecules, or by further optimized derivatives, may be a successful approach in the development of novel anticancer drugs.