Paving the Way for Lignin Valorisation: Recent Advances in Bioengineering, Biorefining and Catalysis.

Lignin is an abundant biopolymer with a high carbon content and high aromaticity. Despite its potential as a raw material for the fuel and chemical industries, lignin remains the most poorly utilised of the lignocellulosic biopolymers. Effective valorisation of lignin requires careful fine-tuning of multiple "upstream" (i.e., lignin bioengineering, lignin isolation and "early-stage catalytic conversion of lignin") and "downstream" (i.e., lignin depolymerisation and upgrading) process stages, demanding input and understanding from a broad array of scientific disciplines. This review provides a "beginning-to-end" analysis of the recent advances reported in lignin valorisation. Particular emphasis is placed on the improved understanding of lignin's biosynthesis and structure, differences in structure and chemical bonding between native and technical lignins, emerging catalytic valorisation strategies, and the relationships between lignin structure and catalyst performance.

Experimental and computational evidence for the mechanism of intradiol catechol dioxygenation by non-heme iron(III) complexes.

Catechol intradiol dioxygenation is a unique reaction catalyzed by iron-dependent enzymes and non-heme iron(III) complexes. The mechanism by which these systems activate dioxygen in this important metabolic process remains controversial. Using a combination of kinetic measurements and computational modelling of multiple iron(III) catecholato complexes, we have elucidated the catechol cleavage mechanism and show that oxygen binds the iron center by partial dissociation of the substrate from the iron complex. The iron(III) superoxide complex that is formed subsequently attacks the carbon atom of the substrate by a rate-determining C-O bond formation step.

Tandem Catalytic Depolymerization of Lignin by Water-Tolerant Lewis Acids and Rhodium Complexes.

Lignin is an attractive renewable feedstock for aromatic bulk and fine chemicals production, provided that suitable depolymerization procedures are developed. Here, we describe a tandem catalysis strategy for ether linkage cleavage within lignin, involving ether hydrolysis by water-tolerant Lewis acids followed by aldehyde decarbonylation by a Rh complex. In situ decarbonylation of the reactive aldehydes limits loss of monomers by recondensation, a major issue in acid-catalyzed lignin depolymerization. Rate of hydrolysis and decarbonylation were matched using lignin model compounds, allowing the method to be successfully applied to softwood, hardwood, and herbaceous dioxasolv lignins, as well as poplar sawdust, to give the anticipated decarbonylation products and, rather surprisingly, 4-(1-propenyl)phenols. Promisingly, product selectivity can be tuned by variation of the Lewis-acid strength and lignin source.

Catalytic oxidative cleavage of catechol by a non-heme iron(III) complex as a green route to dimethyl adipate.

The catalyst system prepared in situ from iron(III) salts, tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine and a base readily catalyses the intradiol dioxygenation of pyrocatechol in methanol, to primarily afford the half-methyl ester of muconic acid. Dimethyl adipate is obtained by the subsequent, one-step catalytic hydrogenation/esterification, thus providing a green route to this important nylon precursor.