Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction Using CO2-Binding Enzymes.

Novel concepts to utilize carbon dioxide are required to reach a circular carbon economy and minimize environmental issues. To achieve these goals, photo-, electro-, thermal-, and biocatalysis are key tools to realize this, preferentially in aqueous solutions. Nevertheless, catalytic systems that operate efficiently in water are scarce. Here, we present a general strategy for the identification of enzymes suitable for CO2 reduction based on structural analysis for potential carbon dioxide binding sites and subsequent mutations. We discovered that the phenolic acid decarboxylase from Bacillus subtilis (BsPAD) promotes the aqueous photocatalytic CO2 reduction selectively to carbon monoxide in the presence of a ruthenium photosensitizer and sodium ascorbate. With engineered variants of BsPAD, TONs of up to 978 and selectivities of up to 93 % (favoring the desired CO over H2 generation) were achieved. Mutating the active site region of BsPAD further improved turnover numbers for CO generation. This also revealed that electron transfer is rate-limiting and occurs via multistep tunneling. The generality of this approach was proven by using eight other enzymes, all showing the desired activity underlining that a range of proteins is capable of photocatalytic CO2 reduction.

Atomically Dispersed Cobalt/Copper Dual-Metal Catalysts for Synergistically Boosting Hydrogen Generation from Formic Acid.

The development of practical materials for (de)hydrogenation reactions is a prerequisite for the launch of a sustainable hydrogen economy. Herein, we present the design and construction of an atomically dispersed dual-metal site Co/Cu-N-C catalyst allowing significantly improved dehydrogenation of formic acid, which is available from carbon dioxide and green hydrogen. The active catalyst centers consist of specific CoCuN6 moieties with double-N-bridged adjacent metal-N4 clusters decorated on a nitrogen-doped carbon support. At optimal conditions the dehydrogenation performance of the nanostructured material (mass activity 77.7 L ⋅ gmetal -1 ⋅ h-1 ) is up to 40 times higher compared to commercial 5 % Pd/C. In situ spectroscopic and kinetic isotope effect experiments indicate that Co/Cu-N-C promoted formic acid dehydrogenation follows the so-called formate pathway with the C-H dissociation of HCOO* as the rate-determining step. Theoretical calculations reveal that Cu in the CoCuN6 moiety synergistically contributes to the adsorption of intermediate HCOO* and raises the d-band center of Co to favor HCOO* activation and thereby lower the reaction energy barrier.

Efficient Synthesis of Novel Plasticizers by Direct Palladium-Catalyzed Di- or Multi-carbonylations.

Diesters are of fundamental importance in the chemical industry and are used for many applications, e.g. as plasticizers, surfactants, emulsifiers, and lubricants. Herein, we present a straightforward and efficient method for the selective synthesis of diesters via palladium-catalyzed direct carbonylation of di- or polyols with readily available alkenes. Key-to-success is the use of a specific palladium catalyst with the "built-in-base" ligand L16 providing esterification of all alcohols and a high n/iso ratio. The synthesized diesters were evaluated as potential plasticizers in PVC films by measuring the glass transition temperature (Tg ) via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).

Site-Selective Real-Time Observation of Bimolecular Electron Transfer in a Photocatalytic System Using L-Edge X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy*.

Time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy has been utilized to monitor the bimolecular electron transfer in a photocatalytic water splitting system. This has been possible by uniting the local probe and element specific character of X-ray transitions with insights from high-level ab initio calculations. The specific target has been a heteroleptic [IrIII (ppy)2 (bpy)]+ photosensitizer, in combination with triethylamine as a sacrificial reductant and Fe3(CO)12 as a water reduction catalyst. The relevant molecular transitions have been characterized via high-resolution Ir L-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy on the picosecond time scale and restricted active space self-consistent field calculations. The presented methods and results will enhance our understanding of functionally relevant bimolecular electron transfer reactions and thus will pave the road to rational optimization of photocatalytic performance.

Cyclometalated Ruthenium Pincer Complexes as Catalysts for the α-Alkylation of Ketones with Alcohols.

Ruthenium PNP pincer complexes bearing supplementary cyclometalated C,N-bound ligands have been prepared and fully characterized for the first time. By replacing CO and H- as ancillary ligands in such complexes, additional electronic and steric modifications of this topical class of catalysts are possible. The advantages of the new catalysts are demonstrated in the general α-alkylation of ketones with alcohols following a hydrogen autotransfer protocol. Herein, various aliphatic and benzylic alcohols were applied as green alkylating agents for ketones bearing aromatic, heteroaromatic or aliphatic substituents as well as cyclic ones. Mechanistic investigations revealed that during catalysis, Ru carboxylate complexes are predominantly formed whereas neither the PNP nor the CN ligand are released from the catalyst in significant amounts.

Homogeneous Catalysis for Sustainable Hydrogen Storage in Formic Acid and Alcohols.

Hydrogen gas is a storable form of chemical energy that could complement intermittent renewable energy conversion. One of the main disadvantages of hydrogen gas arises from its low density, and therefore, efficient handling and storage methods are key factors that need to be addressed to realize a hydrogen-based economy. Storage systems based on liquids, in particular, formic acid and alcohols, are highly attractive hydrogen carriers as they can be made from CO2 or other renewable materials, they can be used in stationary power storage units such as hydrogen filling stations, and they can be used directly as transportation fuels. However, to bring about a paradigm change in our energy infrastructure, efficient catalytic processes that release the hydrogen from these molecules, as well as catalysts that regenerate these molecules from CO2 and hydrogen, are required. In this review, we describe the considerable progress that has been made in homogeneous catalysis for these critical reactions, namely, the hydrogenation of CO2 to formic acid and methanol and the reverse dehydrogenation reactions. The dehydrogenation of higher alcohols available from renewable feedstocks is also described. Key structural features of the catalysts are analyzed, as is the role of additives, which are required in many systems. Particular attention is paid to advances in sustainable catalytic processes, especially to additive-free processes and catalysts based on Earth-abundant metal ions. Mechanistic information is also presented, and it is hoped that this review not only provides an account of the state of the art in the field but also offers insights into how superior catalytic systems can be obtained in the future.

Cobalt Single-Atom Catalysts with High Stability for Selective Dehydrogenation of Formic Acid.

Metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived Co-N-C catalysts with isolated single cobalt atoms have been synthesized and compared with cobalt nanoparticles for formic acid dehydrogenation. The atomically dispersed Co-N-C catalyst achieves superior activity, better acid resistance, and improved long-term stability compared with nanoparticles synthesized by a similar route. High-angle annular dark-field-scanning transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance, and X-ray absorption fine structure characterizations reveal the formation of CoII Nx centers as active sites. The optimal low-cost catalyst is a promising candidate for liquid H2 generation.

Developing Bicatalytic Cascade Reactions: Ruthenium-catalyzed Hydrogen Generation From Methanol.

A novel state-of-the-art bicatalytic system for hydrogen generation from aqueous methanol at low temperature and base concentration is described. Applying two molecularly defined ruthenium complexes A and B3 for methanol dehydrogenation at the same time under the same conditions, a synergistic effect is observed. This behavior is explained by the increase of the dehydrogenation of formic acid, which is formed as an intermediate, by the second catalyst B3.

Cobalt-Catalyzed Aqueous Dehydrogenation of Formic Acid.

Among the known liquid organic hydrogen carriers, formic acid attracts increasing interest in the context of safe and reversible storage of hydrogen. Here, the first molecularly defined cobalt pincer complex is disclosed for the dehydrogenation of formic acid in aqueous medium under mild conditions. Crucial for catalytic activity is the use of the specific complex 3. Compared to related ruthenium and manganese complexes 7 and 8, this optimal cobalt complex showed improved performance. DFT computations support an innocent non-classical bifunctional outer-sphere mechanism on the triplet state potential energy surface.

Low-temperature aqueous-phase methanol dehydrogenation to hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

Hydrogen produced from renewable resources is a promising potential source of clean energy. With the help of low-temperature proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, molecular hydrogen can be converted efficiently to produce electricity. The implementation of sustainable hydrogen production and subsequent hydrogen conversion to energy is called "hydrogen economy". Unfortunately, its physical properties make the transport and handling of hydrogen gas difficult. To overcome this, methanol can be used as a material for the storage of hydrogen, because it is a liquid at room temperature and contains 12.6 per cent hydrogen. However, the state-of-the-art method for the production of hydrogen from methanol (methanol reforming) is conducted at high temperatures (over 200 degrees Celsius) and high pressures (25-50 bar), which limits its potential applications. Here we describe an efficient low-temperature aqueous-phase methanol dehydrogenation process, which is facilitated by ruthenium complexes. Hydrogen generation by this method proceeds at 65-95 degrees Celsius and ambient pressure with excellent catalyst turnover frequencies (4,700 per hour) and turnover numbers (exceeding 350,000). This would make the delivery of hydrogen on mobile devices--and hence the use of methanol as a practical hydrogen carrier--feasible.

Diferrate [Fe2 (CO)6 (µ-CO){µ-P(aryl)2 }]- as Self-Assembling Iron/Phosphor-Based Catalyst for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction in Photocatalytic Proton Reduction-Spectroscopic Insights.

This work is focused on the identification and investigation of the catalytically relevant key iron species in a photocatalytic proton reduction system described by Beller and co-workers. The system is driven by visible light and consists of the low-cost [Fe3 (CO)12 ] as catalyst precursor, electron-poor phosphines P(R)3 as co-catalysts, and a standard iridium-based photosensitizer dissolved in a mixture of THF, water, and the sacrificial reagent triethylamine. The catalytic reaction system was investigated by operando continuous-flow FTIR spectroscopy coupled with H2 gas volumetry, as well as by X-ray absorption spectroscopy, NMR spectroscopy, DFT calculations, and cyclic voltammetry. Several iron carbonyl species were identified, all of which emerge throughout the catalytic process. Depending on the applied P(R)3 , the iron carbonyl species were finally converted into [Fe2 (CO)6 (µ-CO){µ-P(R)2 }]- . This involves a P-C cleavage reaction. The requirements of P(R)3 and the necessary reaction conditions are specified. [Fe2 (CO)6 (µ-CO){µ-P(R)2 }]- represents a self-assembling, sulfur-free [FeFe]-hydrogenase active-site mimic and shows good catalytic activity if the substituent R is electron poor. Deactivation mechanisms have also been investigated, for example, the decomposition of the photosensitizer or processes observed in the case of excessive amounts of P(R)3 . [Fe2 (CO)6 (µ-CO){µ-P(R)2 }]- has potential for future applications.

Renewable Methane Generation from Carbon Dioxide and Sunlight.

The direct approach: Methane is a potential key player in the world's transition to a more sustainable energy future. The direct conversion of carbon dioxide into methane is highly desirable to lower the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and also to store renewable energy. This Highlight describes the first homogeneous system for the light-driven conversion of CO2 into CH4 .

Copper Photosensitizers Containing P

Driven by the intention to improve classic heteroleptic copper photosensitizers two novel Cu(I) complexes applying a hetero-bidentate P^N ligand were prepared. A combined photophysical, electrochemical, and theoretical study gives insights into structure-activity relationships and revealed an increased absorptivity. Both complexes were tested for the light-driven production of H2 .

Heteroleptic Copper Photosensitizers: Why an Extended π-System Does Not Automatically Lead to Enhanced Hydrogen Production.

A series of heteroleptic copper(I) photosensitizers of the type [(P^P)Cu(N^N)]+ with an extended π-system in the backbone of the diimine ligand has been prepared. The structures of all complexes are completely characterized by NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and X-ray crystallography. These novel photosensitizers were assessed with respect to the photocatalytic reduction of protons in the presence of triethylamine and [Fe3 (CO)12 ]. Although the solid-state structures and computational results show no significant impact of the π-extension on the structural properties, decreased activities were observed. To explain this drop, a combination of electrochemical and photophysical measurements including time-resolved emission as well as transient absorption spectroscopy in the femto- to nanosecond time regime was used. Consequently, shortened excited state lifetimes caused by the rapid depopulation of the excited states located at the diimine ligand are identified as a major reason for the low photocatalytic performance.

Structure-Activated Copper Photosensitisers for Photocatalytic Water Reduction.

A series of phenanthroline-based ligands have been synthesised and their influence as bidentate nitrogen ligands in heteroleptic [Cu(P^P)(N^N)]+ photosensitisers in light-driven water reduction has been studied. In this noble-metal-free Cu-Fe-based photocatalytic water reduction system, the structural effects of the nitrogen ligands have been explored, including the steric and electronic effects of substituents at the 2,9- and 4,7-positions of phenanthroline. Ligands were prepared that led to increased hydrogen generation, with turnover numbers (TONCu ) of up to 1388 being observed. All the new complexes were electrochemically and photophysically characterised. We demonstrate for the first time that the presence of fluorine in nitrogen ligands increases the efficacy of copper complexes in photocatalytic hydrogen production.

Formic acid as a hydrogen storage material - development of homogeneous catalysts for selective hydrogen release.

Formic acid (FA, HCO2H) receives considerable attention as a hydrogen storage material. In this respect, hydrogenation of CO2 to FA and dehydrogenation of FA are crucial reaction steps. In the past decade, for both reactions, several molecularly defined and nanostructured catalysts have been developed and intensively studied. From 2010 onwards, this review covers recent advancements in this area using homogeneous catalysts. In addition to the development of catalysts for H2 generation, reversible H2 storage including continuous H2 production from formic acid is highlighted. Special focus is put on recent progress in non-noble metal catalysts.

A Stable Nanocobalt Catalyst with Highly Dispersed CoNx Active Sites for the Selective Dehydrogenation of Formic Acid.

Novel nanostructured catalysts with highly dispersed cobalt have been synthesized by the pyrolysis of metal phenanthroline complexes. Materials with significantly different properties were obtained by simply tuning the metal/ligand ratio. The catalytic potential of this class of compounds is shown by the first example of the dehydrogenation of formic acid under the catalysis of atomically dispersed cobalt. From TEM, XPS, and XRD characterization, KSCN poisoning, and acid leaching, the formation of CoNx species as the active site seems key to the success of this reaction. Excellent stability and recyclability make this new catalyst also attractive for other applications.

A Stable Manganese Pincer Catalyst for the Selective Dehydrogenation of Methanol.

For the first time, structurally defined manganese pincer complexes catalyze the dehydrogenation of aqueous methanol to hydrogen and carbon dioxide, which is a transformation of interest with regard to the implementation of a hydrogen and methanol economy. Excellent long-term stability was demonstrated for the Mn-PNPiPr catalyst, as a turnover of more than 20 000 was reached. In addition to methanol, other important hydrogen carriers were also successfully dehydrogenated.

Unravelling the Mechanism of Basic Aqueous Methanol Dehydrogenation Catalyzed by Ru-PNP Pincer Complexes.

Ruthenium PNP complex 1a (RuH(CO)Cl(HN(C2H4Pi-Pr2)2)) represents a state-of-the-art catalyst for low-temperature (<100 °C) aqueous methanol dehydrogenation to H2 and CO2. Herein, we describe an investigation that combines experiment, spectroscopy, and theory to provide a mechanistic rationale for this process. During catalysis, the presence of two anionic resting states was revealed, Ru-dihydride (3-) and Ru-monohydride (4-) that are deprotonated at nitrogen in the pincer ligand backbone. DFT calculations showed that O- and CH- coordination modes of methoxide to ruthenium compete, and form complexes 4- and 3-, respectively. Not only does the reaction rate increase with increasing KOH, but the ratio of 3-/4- increases, demonstrating that the "inner-sphere" C-H cleavage, via C-H coordination of methoxide to Ru, is promoted by base. Protonation of 3- liberates H2 gas and formaldehyde, the latter of which is rapidly consumed by KOH to give the corresponding gem-diolate and provides the overall driving force for the reaction. Full MeOH reforming is achieved through the corresponding steps that start from the gem-diolate and formate. Theoretical studies into the mechanism of the catalyst Me-1a (N-methylated 1a) revealed that C-H coordination to Ru sets-up C-H cleavage and hydride delivery; a process that is also promoted by base, as observed experimentally. However, in this case, Ru-dihydride Me-3 is much more stable to protonation and can even be observed under neutral conditions. The greater stability of Me-3 rationalizes the lower rates of Me-1a compared to 1a, and also explains why the reaction rate then drops with increasing KOH concentration.

Copper-Based Photosensitisers in Water Reduction: A More Efficient In Situ Formed System and Improved Mechanistic Understanding.

The reduction of water has been achieved through a non-noble-metal-based homogeneous catalyst system that is formed in situ. Optimisation of the ligand quantities increased catalyst turnover numbers compared to preformed complexes. Mechanistic studies confirm a heteroleptic Cu complex as the active photosensitiser (PS) and an in situ formed Fe-phosphido dimer complex as the water reduction catalyst. The in situ method has been used to screen a range of ligands for the active PS, which has led to the identification a number of structural features important to longevity and performance.