Comparison of effect of using hard and soft wheat on the high molecular weight-glutenin subunits profile and the quality of produced cookie.

Twelve wheat genotypes with variable grain hardness were evaluated for grain, flour, pasting, dough rheological properties, high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) and their relationship with cookie quality characteristics. The degree of hardness played an important role in the expression of characters under study. Genotypes with higher grain hardness index (GHI) showed higher dough development time and dough stability. GHI and solvent retention capacity were positively related to each other and negatively to spread factor. GluD1 locus of majority of hard wheat genotypes showed 5 + 10 subunit while soft wheat (SW) genotypes with 2 + 12 subunit related to gluten quality and dough properties. Overall, variation in subunits at GluD1 locus led to greater variation amongst studied genotypes followed by GluB1 and GluA1. Subunits Null at GluA1, 20, 7 + 8 and 7 + 9 at GluB1, and 2 + 12 and 5 + 10 at GluD1 showed a profound effect on flour, dough and cookie quality. Distribution of different HMW-GS, gluten characteristics and GHI, thus emerged as major parameters for selection of wheat genotypes for development of cookies. SW (QBP 13-11) with the lowest GHI and HMW-GS profile (2*, 7 and 2 + 12 subunit) showed the highest cookie SF and the lowest BS, thereby, turning out to be the best suitable genotype for producing cookies. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-021-05272-5.

Effects of incorporation of groundnut oil and hydrogenated fat on pasting and dough rheological properties of flours from wheat varieties.

The effects of incorporation of groundnut oil (GO) and hydrogenated fat (HF) at different levels (1%, 3% and 5%) on pasting, dough rheology and mixing properties of strong wheat flour (SWF) and weak wheat flour (WWF) were evaluated. SWF showed higher paste viscosities as compared to WWF. However, higher setback viscosity for SWF than WWF was observed. Paste viscosity and mixograph peak time of both flours decreased with an increase in level of GO and HF. Pasting temperature of both flours decreased with an increase in GO. Storage modulus (G') was higher than loss modulus (G″) for dough from both SWF and WWF. G' increased while G″ decreased with an increase in levels of GO and HF. Dough prepared from SWF needed longer time for mixing and showed wider peak width, indicating strong and stable dough as compared to WWF. Addition of GO up to 3% level progressively decreased dough consistency and mixing tolerance and further addition led to an increase in both properties. Contrarily, addition of HF showed opposite effect in WWF. Both GO and HF showed variables effects towards mixing in both flour types. Dough tolerance and breakdown during mixing improved with increase in GO while adversely affected with increase in HF.

Evaluation of pasting and dough rheological properties of composite flours made from flour varied in gluten strength.

Flours from various wheat varieties varied in gluten strength were blended in varying proportions and evaluated for pasting and dough rheological properties. The different blends of strong: very weak/weak/medium flour (100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100) (w/w) were prepared. Two strong and three weak wheat varieties were selected for this study on the basis of Farinograph dough stability (DS). Strong wheat (HUW468 and HP1761), medium weak (HUW234), weak (HD2894) and very weak (WH1021) wheat variety had DS of 11.4-13.5 min, 9.9 min, 6.2 min, and 2.8 min, respectively. Protein content of the flour decreased with increase in proportion of weak wheat flours in the blends. The lowest values of protein content, paste viscosities and mixographic parameters were observed for blend of strong and very weak wheat flour (25:75). The blending of strong wheat flour with weaker wheat flour decreased the protein content and mixographic properties. The regression equations for blending of weak wheat with strong wheat flour had the highest regression coefficient for paste viscosities (Peak, final, breakdown and setback) and pasting temperature indicated that the greatest change in these properties with increase in blending level of weak wheat. The blending of weak wheat with strong wheat flour had the highest regression coefficient indicating the greatest change in MPT as the blending level was increased. The blending of very weak, weak and medium wheat flour with strong wheat flour showed significant effect on G' and G″. The flours with variable dough rheological properties suitable for different products can be produced by blending strong and weak wheat flour.

Relationship of Mixolab characteristics with protein, pasting, dynamic and empirical rheological characteristics of flours from Indian wheat varieties with diverse grain hardness.

Mixolab properties of different Indian extraordinarily soft (Ex-SW), hard (HW) and medium hard (MHW) wheat varieties were evaluated and related to damaged starch content, particle size distribution, pasting, Farinographic and Mixographic properties. Water absorption (WA) of HW varieties was higher as compared to other varieties. Higher damaged starch led to more WA in HW varieties while lower in Ex-SW varieties. Unextratable polymeric protein, damaged starch and arabinoxylans were related to dough consistency. Mixolab measurement C3 (peak viscosity) and C5 (starch retrogradation) decreased with increase in grain hardness index, damaged starch content, and sodium solvent retention capacity. Dough stability (DS) and dough development time (DDT) measured by Mixolab and farinograph were significantly correlated. Mixolab parameters (C3, C4 and C5) related positively to DDT and DS while negatively to WA. HW varieties showed higher shear thinning as compared to MHW and Ex-SW varieties. C4 (hot paste stability) was lower for HW but higher for Ex-SW varieties. SuSRC was negatively related to C4 indicating that HW flours had lower starch retrogradation due to higher arabinoxylans. C3, C4 and C5 related positively to small size particles while negatively to large size particles. Slope beta (ß) measured by mixolab indicated that the speed of starch gelatinization was lower for Ex-SW varieties than MHW and HW varieties.

Diversity in protein profiling, pasting, empirical and dynamic dough rheological properties of meal from different durum wheat accessions.

The particle size distribution, protein profile, pasting and dough rheological properties of meal from forty-two Indian durum wheat accessions were evaluated. Meal from accessions with higher grain hardness index (GHI) showed a high proportion of large size particles with higher protein content and lower paste viscosities. Elastic and viscous modulii (G' and G″) of dough were negatively correlated with paste viscosities, which was associated with the presence/absence of LMW-GS and HMW-GS. Wheat accessions with allelic combinations of (13 + 16) with 97 + 91 kDa polypeptides (PPs) had higher G' and G″. The accession with 35 kDa PP showed higher while those with 35 and 62 kDa PPs showed lower paste viscosity. Among all accessions, 25 accessions possess 7 + 8 (97 and 88 kDa) type HMW-GS allelic combination. Durum accessions with diverse GHI, particle size distribution, protein profile, paste and dough rheology indicates their variation in milling and processing behaviour.

Fractionation and grain hardness effect on protein profiling, pasting and rheological properties of flours from medium-hard and extraordinarily soft wheat varieties.

In the present study coarse fraction (CF), medium fine fraction (MFF) and fine fraction (FF) were separated from flours milled from medium-hard and extraordinarily soft wheat varieties and were evaluated for various quality characteristics. Grain hardness of medium-hard and extraordinarily soft wheat varieties varied from 77 to 80 and 17 to 18, respectively. Ash and protein content was the highest for FF and the lowest for CF. Varieties with greater hardness produced higher CF and lower of FF. FF showed higher unextractable polymeric protein (UnEx-PP) and dough stability as compared to MFF and CF. FF showed lower damage starch content as related by lower Sodium SRC (NaSRC) as compared to MFF and FF. CF showed higher paste viscosities than FF and difference were greater amongst fractions from varieties with lower grain hardness. FF with greater proportion of small size particles showed greater accumulation of 98 kDa and 85 kDa PPs than CF. This study demonstrated that fractionation of flours can be employed to produce fractions with varied gluten strength required for production of various products.

Effect of gelatinized-retrograded and extruded starches on characteristics of cookies, muffins and noodles.

The effect of substitution of wheat flour with gelatinized-retrograded starch (GRS) and extruded starch (ES) at 10 and 20 % levels on characteristics of cookies, muffins and noodles was evaluated. Cookies made by substitution of flour with GRS or ES were lighter in color, showed higher spread ratio and resistant starch (RS) content. Muffins made by substitution of flour with GRS or ES were lighter in color, showed less height, specific volume and gas cells and higher RS content. Muffins containing GRS were less firm while those made by incorporating ES showed higher firmness than those made without substitution. Noodles made with substitution of flour with GRS or ES showed higher RS content and reduced water uptake, gruel solid loss, hardness and adhesiveness. Cookies and noodles prepared with and without substitution of flour with GRS or ES did not show any significant differences in terms of overall acceptability scores.

Physicochemical and rheological properties of starch and flour from different durum wheat varieties and their relationships with noodle quality.

Starch and flour properties of different Indian durum wheat varieties were evaluated and related to noodle-making properties. Flours were evaluated for pasting properties, protein characteristics (extractable as well as unextractable monomeric and polymeric proteins) and dough rheology (farinographic properties), while starches were evaluated for granule size, thermal, pasting, and rheological properties. Flour peak and final viscosities related negatively to the proportion of monomeric proteins but positively to that of polymeric proteins whereas opposite relations were observed for dough rheological properties (dough-development time and stability). Starches from varieties with higher proportion of large granules showed the presence of less stable amylose-lipids and had more swelling power, peak viscosity and breakdown viscosity than those with greater proportion of small granules. Noodle-cooking time related positively to the proportion of monomeric proteins and starch gelatinization temperatures but negatively to that of polymeric proteins and amylose content. Varieties with more proteins resulted in firmer noodles. Noodle-cohesiveness related positively to the proportion of polymeric proteins and amylose-lipids complexes whereas springiness correlated negatively to amylose content and retrogradation tendency of starches.

Evaluation of heat stress through delayed sowing on physicochemical and functional characteristics of grains, whole meals and flours of India wheat.

The physicochemical and functional characteristics of grain, meal and flour of timely sown wheat (TSW) and delayed sown wheat (DSW) were compared to see the effects of heat stress (HS). TSW and DSW of different lines were sown as per the approved timings. DSW experienced higher temperature during flowering and had shorter vegetative and maturation period than TSW. Pasting and dough rheological properties were measured using Rapid Visco-Analyser and Farinograph, respectively, while gliadins and glutenins profiling was done by SDS-PAGE. Delayed sowing decreased grain yield and diameter while increased protein and all categories of gliadins and high molecular weight glutenins. DSW showed higher peak viscosity, breakdown-viscosity and dough stability and lower setback viscosity, damaged starch, arabinoxylans and water absorption than TSW. HS in DSW appeared to lower starch synthesis causing proportionate increase in grain hardness and proteins content leading to changes in milling and rheological characteristics.

Comparative analysis of native and defatted flour from hard, extraordinarily soft, and medium-hard wheat varieties for protein solvation, pasting, mixing, and dough rheological behavior.

The effect of lipids extraction on protein salvation, pasting, and dough rheological behavior of flours dough from hard wheat (HW), extraordinarily soft wheat (Ex-SW), and medium-hard wheat (MHW) flour was analyzed. The varieties selected had wide variation in grain hardness index (17 to 95). Ex-SW revealed lower tryptophan fluorescent emission and water absorption (WA) than MHW and HW varieties. The change in pasting parameters on defatting was the highest for Ex-SW varieties. Native flour (NF) of HW varieties showed high protein content, pasting and dough strength, and fluorescence intensity in comparison to Ex-SW varieties, while on defatting this was reversed. Protein pattern of defatted flour and NF did not differ significantly. Defatting of flours increased WA and decreased dough stability (DS). The decrease in DS on defatting was more for Ex-SW varieties than others. DS for HW and MHW varieties reduced upon defatting. Defatting significantly increased all mixographic and rheological properties except peak time. Overall, results showed that defatting of flour improved paste and dough strength. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Higher gluten strength of defatted wheat flour of varied grain hardness has wide applications. Most of the Indian bread wheat varieties possess GluD1 high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS) allelic composition of (2 + 12), which is not suitable for bread making due to weak gluten strength. Defatting of flours improved the gluten strength of strong and weak flour dough of different wheat varieties irrespective of GluD1 allelic composition for HMW-GS. Defatted flour may be used to improve the baking and cooking performance of dough made from weak wheat. These findings are highly suitable for wheat milling and baked product manufacturing industries.

Hard, medium-hard and extraordinarily soft wheat varieties: Comparison and relationship between various starch properties.

Starches from extraordinarily soft wheat (Ex-SW), medium-hard wheat (MHW) and hard wheat (HW) varieties were evaluated for various properties and their relationship with each other was established. Varieties showed wide variation in grain hardness index (GHI) that varied between 17 and 95. Starches were evaluated for physicochemical properties, granule size distribution, starch morphology, pasting and thermal properties. Starches from MHW showed the presence of the largest proportion of A-type granules and the smallest proportions of B-type and C-type granules whereas Ex-SW showed the greatest proportion of C-type granules. Starches from HW and MHW varieties showed lower swelling power (SP) and higher amylose content (AC) than that from Ex-SW varieties. Starches from HW varieties had greater crystallinity than starches from Ex-SW. Transition temperatures of starch gelatinization decreased with decrease in GHI.

Effect of debranning on grains and meal characteristics of different Indian and exotic wheat varieties.

The objective of this work was to evaluated the effects of debranning (2% and 4%) of Indian and exotic wheat varieties on pasting, protein profile and rheological properties of meal. Exotic varieties grains showed significant difference in cooking properties despite having similar protein content. Debranned grains of exotic varieties showed significantly lower water uptake (WU) than those from Indian varieties. Ash content, protein content and mixographic properties (mixing time, dough strength) of meal decreased with increase in extent of debranning. With increase in debranning level unextractable polymeric proteins (UnEx-PP) decreased while unextractable monomeric proteins (UnEx-MP) increased. Exotic varieties had lower extractable PP as compared to Indian wheat varieties. With increase in debranning level pasting parameters (final, breakdown and peak viscosity) increased. Exotic varieties showed the higher gluten strength indicated by mixographic parameters. Wheat grains debranned to 4% debranning level showed better cooking properties. Exotic wheat varieties showed better pasting and mixing properties as compared to Indian wheat varieties.

Extraordinarily soft, medium-hard and hard Indian wheat varieties: Composition, protein profile, dough and baking properties.

Hard wheat (HW), medium-hard wheat (MHW) and extraordinarily soft wheat (Ex-SW) varieties with grain hardness index (GHI) of 83 to 95, 72 to 80, 17 to 29 were evaluated for pasting, protein molecular weight (MW) distribution, dough rheology and baking properties. Flours from varieties with higher GHI had more protein content, ash content and paste viscosities. Ex-SW had more glutenins proportion as compared to HW and MHW. Flours from Ex-SW varieties showed lower NaSRC, WA and mixographic parameters as compared to HW and MHW. Dough from flours milled from Ex-SW had higher Intermolecular-ß-sheets (IM-ß-sheets) than those from MHW and HW. Muffins volume increased with decrease in GHI, Ex-SW varieties had more muffin volume and less air space. The accumulation of polypeptides (PPs) varied significantly in different varieties. Ex-SW variety (QBP12-10) showed accumulation of 98, 90, 81 and 79kDa PPs, which was unique and was different from other varieties.

Diversity in quality traits amongst Indian wheat varieties I: flour and protein characteristics.

The relationships of polymeric as well as monomeric proteins (unextractable and extractable) with various flour properties amongst Indian wheat varieties were evaluated. Unextractable polymeric proteins and unextractable monomeric proteins in flours ranged from 23.83% to 51.97% and 48.03% to 76.17%, respectively. Varieties with higher grain hardness index resulted into flours with higher a(∗), ash content and protein content. Unextractable polymeric and monomeric proteins were related to grain hardness index. Unextractable polymeric proteins showed a positive correlation with gluten index and LASRC. Majority of varieties with HMW-GS combinations of 91kDa+80kDa+78kDa+74kDa PPs showed very high grain hardness index (97-100).

Diversity in quality traits amongst Indian wheat varieties II: Paste, dough and muffin making properties.

The relationship between protein molecular weight (MW) distribution, quality characteristics and muffin making properties amongst Indian wheat varieties were evaluated. Flours from varieties with higher grain weight showed lower proportion of fine particles. Lactic acid solvent retention capacity (LASRC), sedimentation value (SV) and dough stability (DS) correlated with the proportion of 0-55 µm size particles. Paste peak viscosity and breakdown viscosity showed positive correlation with polymeric protein and negatively with monomeric protein, α-amylase activity and sodium carbonate solvent retention capacity (NaSRC). Gluten strength indicators such as DS, dough development time (DDT), LASRC and gluten index (GI) were positively related to polymeric protein and negatively to monomeric protein. Both G' and G″ were correlated significantly with GI, LASRC, DS and DDT. The varieties that possesses high MW glutenin subunits combinations of 91 kDa + 84 kDa + 78 kDa + 74 kDa showed lower G' and G″. Muffin volume was positively correlated with gluten content and LASRC.

Relationship of various flour properties with noodle making characteristics among durum wheat varieties.

The grain, flour, dough and noodle making properties of Indian durum wheat varieties were evaluated. Varieties having higher grain weight had lower hardness and higher yellow pigment content. Gluten performance index showed positive correlation with α-helix and negative with intermolecular+antiparallel-ß-sheets in gluten. The proportion of extracted polymeric proteins was related to dough strength. Elastic (G') and loss (G″) modulus of dough were positively correlated to intermolecular+antiparallel-ß-sheets and negatively with ß-turn+ ß-sheets proportion of dough and gluten. PDW291 with exceptionally higher G' and G″ and best noodle making properties showed the presence 90 kDa and 88 kDa polypeptides corresponding to 14+15 and type 2 banding pattern.