Training surgeons in endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.

BACKGROUND: General surgeons commonly perform upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in practice, but few perform endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), partly because of limited training opportunities. This report focuses on the value of an ERCP fellowship training program to a broad-based, mature residency in surgery and our observations on the experience required for surgeons to be trained in advanced interventional ERCP. METHODS: Since the program was initiated in 1992, 13 ERCP fellows have been trained for individual periods of 6 to 14 months. This study investigated all procedures with fellow involvement (2,008 cases) from among a total experience of 3,641 ERCPs. Data collected included type of ERCP (diagnostic/therapeutic), fellow success in cannulating the duct of interest, and faculty success in cases of fellows who failed. Of the 13 fellows, 9 had previous endoscopy experience, but none had training in ERCP. RESULTS: An 85% cannulation rate was accepted as successful, and cannulation rates for each fellow were calculated for each 3-month period. The 85% mark was reached by 4 (31%) of 13 fellows in the first period, 2 of 13 fellows (15%) in the second period, 5 of 11 fellows (45%) in the third period, 7 of 10 fellows (70%) in the fourth period, and 1 of 1 fellow (100%) in the fifth period of training. On the average, it took 7.1 months and 102 ERCPs for trainees to reach desired success levels. Success came more promptly with prior exposure to endoscopy. Fellows without prior endoscopic experience required 148 cases to reach 85% success. Resident surgical experience with major pancreatic resections increased threefold after establishment of the fellowship. CONCLUSIONS: Training in ERCP is possible within the scope of a surgical fellowship in a reasonable length of time and experience. Complication rates remain low even with fellow involvement. Establishment of an ERCP program increases the focus and experience of pancreas surgery in a surgical residency for chief residents.

Surgical sympathectomy increases pancreatic polypeptide response to food.

Numerous studies in man and animals suggest that beta-adrenergic receptors stimulate pancreatic polypeptide (PP) release whereas alpha-adrenergic receptors inhibit PP release. This study was undertaken to further clarify the role of the adrenergic nervous system in regulating PP release. We evaluated the effects of stellatectomy and celiacectomy on resting and meat meal-stimulated PP release in the dog. PP release was studied in three stages--control, poststellatectomy, and poststellatectomy plus celiacectomy in five dogs. The meat meal caused a prompt and prolonged increase in plasma levels of PP. Stellatectomy did not alter the control PP response. However, celiacectomy increased basal and peak PP levels and enhanced the early and late phases of delta-integrated PP release. The data suggest that the celiac and superior mesenteric ganglia are the main source of the adrenergic innervation of the pancreas and that this innervation is primarily an inhibitor of PP release.

Relationship of omeprazole-induced hypergastrinemia to gastric pH.

The increase in gastrin caused by the gastric proton pump inhibitor, omeprazole, is presumably secondary to inhibition of gastric acid secretion but could also be due to a direct effect on the gastrin cells. This experiment was designed to determine whether gastrin elevations caused by omeprazole are related to intragastric pH. We studied gastrin release and acid output in response to 10% peptone broth (400 ml) in five dogs with gastric fistulas. The broth, at pH 5.5 or 2.5, was instilled into the stomach through the cannula, and the desired pH was maintained by intragastric titration with 0.1N NaHCO3 for 2 hours. Studies at each pH level were performed on separate days before, during, and after omeprazole (10 mumol/kg daily for 20 days). Omeprazole increased intragastric pH to greater than or equal to 3.5 for 24 hours. At pH 5.5 omeprazole inhibited acid secretion and increased gastrin levels; however, setting the intragastric pH at 2.5 completely blocked omeprazole's effect on gastrin release. Therefore these data support the hypothesis that the hypergastrinemia caused by omeprazole is dependent on gastric pH and gastric acid suppression.

Use of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the management of biliary complications after laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

BACKGROUND: Current options in the management of bile duct injuries caused by laparoscopic cholecystectomy include diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and open laparotomy with direct repair. The goal of this review was to clarify the role and evaluate the potential of endoscopic techniques to diagnose and treat bile duct injuries. METHODS: The records of all patients undergoing biliary tract surgery at our hospitals for the period from December 1989 to February 1993 were reviewed. Twenty-five patients were identified with bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. RESULTS: ERCP was performed for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes in 22 of the 25 patients; successful opacification of the biliary tree was achieved in 21 (95%) of the 22 patients. In these 21 patients the location and nature of the injury were identified correctly in 19 (90%). In six of the 25 cases, interventional ERCP was used as the primary treatment of these injuries. Successful treatment was achieved in five (83%) of the six cases, although laparotomy was required in two to drain the abscess cavity better. Open surgical repair was performed as the primary treatment in the remaining 19 patients. Interventional ERCP with stenting was required in six and transhepatic stenting in one of these patients as an adjunctive treatment for stricture or persistent fistula. Six (86%) of these seven patients have been treated successfully to date in this manner. CONCLUSIONS: ERCP is a uniquely helpful diagnostic and therapeutic technique in the management of laparoscopic biliary complications. Open surgical repair remains the procedure of choice for patients with loss of bile duct tissue or long complex strictures. ERCP with sphincterotomy, balloon dilatation, and stenting is an accepted alternative approach for bile leaks (fistulas) and treatment of shorter strictures resulting from either the initial laparoscopic injury or the initial repair.

Esophageal motility: effects of injection sclerotherapy.

The purpose of this project was to evaluate the acute and chronic effects of sclerotherapy on esophageal motility and function. We studied motility in eight patients before and after injection sclerotherapy of esophageal varices. We injected the varices with 5% sodium morrhuate twice during the first week and then at 1, 2, 3, and 6 months. Lower esophageal sphincter pressure, contraction wave amplitude, and duration were not altered by sclerotherapy. However, the length of the high-pressure zone increased significantly from 3.6 +/- 0.3 cm to 4.2 +/- 0.2 cm during the first 3 days after initial treatment, and sclerotherapy caused considerable distortion of peristaltic wave form. Also, esophageal peristaltic velocity decreased in three patients who complained of dysphagia and subsequently developed esophageal stricture. The strictures have responded well to dilatation, and in two patients velocity has even returned toward the baseline value. Reflux esophagitis has not been a problem. Esophageal motility is altered by sclerotherapy of esophageal varices. Stricture formation seems to be reversible after sclerotherapy is stopped or discontinued.

Gastric acid secretion after chemical sympathectomy.

Adrenergic nerve terminals in several organs are selectively destroyed by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) resulting in a chemical sympathectomy that is reversible. In this study the acute and chronic effects of 6-OHDA on gastric mucosa and acid secretion were evaluated. Four dogs were given 6-OHDA (40 mg/kg, intravenously). Gastric biopsies were taken before treatment and biweekly thereafter and were analyzed by fluorescence microscopy (Hillarp-Falck). Degeneration of adrenergic nerve terminals in the mucosa was complete at 1 week. Early regeneration was noted at 3 weeks and appeared to be complete at 9 weeks. In another group of seven dogs with a gastric fistula, dose-response curves to pnetagastrin (PPG, 0 to 5 microgram/kg/hr) were determined. Then 6-OHDA (40 mg/kg) was given to these dogs and secretory studies were repeated weekly thereafter for 8 weeks. After 6-OHDA administration, acid secretion increased in response to submaximal doses of PPG, whereas maximal secretion was unchanged. The peak increase occurred the second week; thereafter secretion gradually returned to control values. We conclude that chemical sympathectomy (6-OHDA) increases gastric acid secretion in response to submaximal PPG stimulation. This increase correlates well with the 6-OHDA--induced degeneration of adrenergic terminals in the mucosa. These data suggest that the adrenergic innervation of the stomach has an inhibitory effect on the control of acid secretion in the dog.

Endoscopic drainage of the pancreatic pseudocyst.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic pseudocyst is a common complication of chronic pancreatitis occurring in 20% to 40% of cases. Pseudocysts can be treated by endoscopic cystenterostomy or transpapillary drainage, percutaneously with computed tomography guidance or operatively. METHODS: A total of 36 endoscopic pancreatic pseudocyst drainage procedures were performed in 29 patients with 34 pseudocysts. Eighty percent presented with chronic pain, 25% had recurrent pancreatitis, and approximately one half of the patients had either gastric outlet obstruction or a palpable abdominal mass. RESULTS: Thirty-six endoscopic drainage procedures were performed, 27 cystenterostomies and 9 transpapillary drainages. Endoscopic treatment achieved complete resolution of the pseudocyst in 24 of 29 patients (83%), and the other 5 (17%) eventually required surgery. Two patients required distal pancreatectomy because of their pancreatic pathology, 2 cystgastrostomies for persistence of the pseudocyst, and 1 external drainage of an infected pancreatic cyst. The mean follow-up after the initial drainage was 16 months. There were no deaths attributed to the procedures and no complication that required surgery. Only 1 nonadherent pseudocyst (cystadenoma) required immediate operation after attempted endoscopic drainage. CONCLUSIONS: The conclude that endoscopic drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts can be both safe and effective, and definitive treatment. It should be considered as an alternative option before standard surgical drainage in selected patients.

Radionuclide esophageal transit. A screening test for esophageal disorders.

Radionuclide esophageal transit (RET) is a noninvasive method of studying esophageal function. The purpose of this study was to evaluate RET as a screening test for motility disorders in symptomatic patients. Esophageal manometry and RET were performed in 16 volunteers and in 34 patients who were referred for motility evaluation. Each RET study consisted of two swallows of labeled water with the patient in the supine position under a gamma camera. Six patients had achalasia, two had scleroderma, two had diffuse esophageal spasms, and five had a nonspecific motor disorder. In each case the RET time was prolonged (greater than 15 s). Ten patients had reflux esophagitis; two of these had both abnormal manometry results and prolonged RET times. There were nine patients with upper gastrointestinal tract symptoms but normal manometry results and the RET test was positive in two patients. There were no false-negative RET results. The agreement between the RET and manometry results in this series was 96% (48/50). This preliminary experience suggests that RET is as sensitive as manometry for identifying motility disorders.

Balloon dilatation of anastomotic strictures.

Our experience with balloon dilatation of postoperative anastomotic strictures is reported herein. Six patients with strictures not responsive or accessible to standard bougie techniques were selected for balloon dilatation. A guidewire was passed through the stricture with an endoscope (four patients) or with fluoroscopic guidance alone (two patients). Balloon catheters were then advanced over the guidewire and distended with a water-contrast mixture. Sufficient pressure was applied to efface the stricture indentation of the balloon. Since August 1984, we have performed 12 dilatations in these six patients. We dilated four strictures to 20 mm and two strictures to 15 mm. With the exception of stenosis due to edema caused by cancer or radiation, balloon dilatation is an effective treatment of tight upper gastrointestinal tract strictures that have not responded to standard dilatation techniques.

Colonoscopy after curative resection of colorectal cancer.

Colonoscopy is generally considered to be an important part of the follow-up program for patients who have undergone curative resection of colorectal cancer. However, there are few data available concerning the frequency with which colonoscopy should be performed and for what length of time after operation. Since 1978, our policy has been to examine the colon annually in these patients using colonoscopy alternating with barium enema. We have evaluated the results in 100 patients over a four-year period. Based on size and histology, the significant colonoscopic findings were new colon cancers in three patients and 11 polyps demonstrating increased risk for malignancy in nine patients. This represents an interval yield of 3% per year. From these results and other reports, we recommend that these patients undergo total colonoscopy in the perioperative period to identify and remove synchronous lesions of the colon, and that examination of the remaining colon should be performed annually, preferably with colonoscopy, for at least the first four years after curative resection.

Plastic mesh repair of incisional hernias.

During eight years polypropylene mesh was used in fifty-three patients for the repair of difficult incisional hernias. There was no operative mortality, and the mesh has been uniformly well tolerated. To date, recurrences have been observed in six patients (11.3%), a distinct improvement over the era before mesh was used. Greater attention to the details of mesh fixation may further lower the recurrence rate.

The alkaline shift in gastric pH after cholecystectomy.

Previous studies using cholescintigraphy and measurement of bile salts in gastric juice have demonstrated that duodenogastric reflux is increased after cholecystectomy, a factor that may contribute to postoperative complaints in some patients. We studied 24-hour continuous gastric pH in healthy subjects, patients with cholelithiasis, and patients who had undergone cholecystectomy. Cholecystectomy decreased the percentage of time that gastric pH is below 2 and increased the time it is above 4 and 6. Furthermore, there was a greater increase in the more alkaline pH values in patients who were symptomatic than in those who were asymptomatic. The results demonstrated that cholecystectomy is associated with an alkaline shift in the 24-hour gastric pH profile that is most marked in symptomatic patients. This suggests that gastric alkaline episodes may be related to some postcholecystectomy symptoms.

Delayed gastric emptying after gastric surgery.

BACKGROUND: The reported incidence of delayed gastric emptying (DGE) after gastric surgery is 5% to 25% and usually is based on operations for peptic ulcer disease. Ongoing improvements in perioperative care, nutritional support, and new prokinetic drugs may have had a beneficial effect on the frequency and course of postoperative DGE. METHODS: We therefore studied our recent experience with DGE in 416 patients who had gastric surgery for ulcer disease (283), cancer (92), or trauma and other indications (41) between January 1985 and December 1993. DGE was defined as inability to eat a regular diet by postoperative day 10. RESULTS: DGE occurred in 99 of 416 patients (24%). In 75 of these 99 patients, a postoperative contributing factor for DGE was identified. These factors were sepsis (32), anastomotic edema and leaks (23), obstruction (4), pancreatitis (3), multiple system organ failure (5), and miscellaneous conditions (8). In 24 patients there was no obvious cause for DGE; these patients recovered with nutritional support and time. Re-operation specifically for gastric stasis was not performed. Among the 99 patients with DGE, 67% were eating by day 21, 92% by 6 weeks, and 100% by 10 weeks. Significant risk factors for DGE were diabetes (55%), malnutrition (44%), and operations for malignancy (38%). The Whipple procedure had the highest incidence of DGE (70%), highly selective vagotomy the lowest (0%), while truncal vagotomy had no significant effect. The response to metoclopramide was 20% and unpredictable. CONCLUSION: DGE continues to affect a considerable number of our patients (24%) after gastric surgery and is particularly common in patients with diabetes, malnutrition, and gastric or pancreatic cancer. However, gastric motility does return in 3 to 6 weeks in most patients and the need for re-operation for gastric stasis is rare.

Intrathoracic fundoplication for shortened esophagus. Treacherous solution to a challenging problem.

Intrathoracic fundoplication was used in 12 patients with acquired shortening of the esophagus secondary to gastroesophageal reflux. While several patients had excellent results using this approach, five major complications occurred. One patient developed a paraesophageal hernia, while four had ulceration within the wrap itself. One had serious hemorrhage, while another required reoperation to dismantle the intrathoracic wrap. One patient developed a gastrobronchial fistula and eventually died from pulmonary sepsis. The cause of these problems is unknown, but delayed gastric emptying was implicated in two patients. Even though leaving a Nissen fundoplication in the chest seems to be an attractive alternative when the surgeon cannot reduce the wrap below the diaphragm, this alternative is fraught with treacherous complications in a large percentage of patients.

Gastric response to severe head injury.

We studied the gastric response to severe head injury and multiple trauma in 53 patients admitted to the surgical intensive care unit at the University of Louisville. Twenty-two of the 32 patients with severe head injury could have endoscopy. Each patient had gastritis or duodenitis. Patients with severe head injury had a slightly higher rate of gastric acid secretion than did the other trauma patients without severe head injury, but the difference was not significant. Serum gastrin levels were normal in both groups and did not correlate with intracranial pressure. Pancreatic polypeptide levels were significantly higher in patients with severe head injury compared with the control trauma patients without head injury. Elevations in pancreatic polypeptide may be linked to increases in intracranial pressure. We conclude that erosive gastritis occurs commonly in patients with severe head injury and that severe head injury is associated with a marked increase in pancreatic polypeptide levels in the fasted, nongut-stimulated state. Gastrin levels are within normal limits. Head injury appears to specifically increase pancreatic polypeptide release, probably by influencing autonomic centers in the mid brain. Because the cephalic phase of pancreatic polypeptide release is vagalcholinergic, the data are consistent with the hypothesis that severe head injury increases vagal activity. Participation of vagal adrenergic fibers in this process cannot be excluded.

Interruption of professional and home activity after laparoscopic cholecystectomy among French and American patients.

With a laparoscopic approach, patients can undergo cholecystectomy with a shorter hospitalization, minimal pain, and quicker recovery. It has not been demonstrated, however, that patients actually return to work after laparoscopic cholecystectomy faster than the traditional 4- to 6-week absence from work after a standard open procedure. A survey of 104 French and 84 American patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy revealed that postoperative discomfort was completely resolved in 2 weeks in 73% of French and 93% of American patients. All but 11 French and 5 American patients were back to normal home activities by 2 weeks after the operation. Of the 35 American and 40 French patients who had professional activity outside the home, 63% and 25%, respectively, returned to work within 14 days. Five (14%) of the American patients and 12 (30%) of the French patients returned to work 4 weeks or more after the operation. The amount of physical activity on the job correlated with the period off work, but, interestingly, at least six patients with very hard physical activity at work (including construction workers) were able to return to full work activity within 1 week. These data suggest that early return to work is possible and that pain resolves quickly after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The economic benefit of having patients back on the job quickly, however, may be less than expected until cultural norms change with regard to leave of absence after major surgery.

Endoscopic management of benign and malignant biliary strictures.

BACKGROUND: It is now possible to manage most extrahepatic bile duct strictures, benign or malignant, using endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) with endoscopic dilatation and stenting. METHODS: Over a 5-year period we treated 218 patients with strictures of extrahepatic bile ducts. Eighty-six patients had benign biliary stricture. Endoscopic treatment was performed in 67 (78%) of these patients. Open surgical biliary drainage was preferred in 12 patients (14%), and 7 patients (8%) were managed conservatively without stenting or surgery. One hundred and thirty-two patients had malignant biliary stricture. One hundred and one patients (77%) underwent endoscopic stent placement. Thirty-one patients (23%) underwent surgery for potential curative resection after diagnostic ERCP. The average life span in the malignant stricture group was 5 months (range 0.1 to 25 months) after the initial endoscopic procedure. RESULTS: Altogether 313 endoscopic procedures in 218 patients were performed for benign and malignant bile duct strictures. Complications included hemorrhage in 8 (3%), pancreatitis in 10 (3%), and suspected retroperitoneal perforation in 2 (0.6%). There were no ERCP related deaths; one patient died of uncontrolled bleeding from transhepatic stenting. In benign strictures, there has been no recurrence of strictures after the last stent removal with a mean followup of 21 months (range 0.1 to 31 months). All complications were successfully treated conservatively. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic management of benign and malignant biliary stricture is possible with minimal morbidity and mortality and should be considered an acceptable option to surgical management.

Origin of the adrenergic nerve fibers in the subdiaphragmatic vagus in the dog.

The vagi at the subdiaphragmatic level were studied by the Hillarp-Falck technic in combination with a nerve crush procedure in three normal dogs and in eight dogs that had undergone previous surgical excision of the superior cervical ganglion and/or the stellate ganglia. Unilateral ganglionectomies were performed so that the contralateral vagus served as a control. Based on these results, it is concluded that: (1) the subdiaphragmatic canine vagus contains numerous adrenergic nerve fibers; (2) the main portion of these vagal adrenergic fibers arises from the stellate ganglia; and (3) removal of both the stellate and the superior cervical ganglia results in nearly complete adrenergic denervation of the abdominal vagus.

Multipractice analysis of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in 1,983 patients.

We analyzed the results of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in 1,983 patients from a variety of practice settings in order to evaluate a large, cross-sectional experience for this new procedure. Twenty general surgeons from 9 clinics in 4 states examined the records and outcome of their laparoscopic cholecystectomy patients through March 1991. In 88 patients (4.5%), the operation was converted to an open procedure, usually because of marked inflammation and unclear anatomy. A total of 644 cases were performed with laser dissection and 1,339 with cautery, and the results of these 2 methods were similar. There were 41 complications. Reoperation for repair was necessary in 18 patients, including 5 with common duct injuries, and, to date, the outcome has been good in each patient. Seventy-six patients (3.8%) have had recognized common duct stones; these were removed preoperatively by endoscopic sphincterotomy (ERS) in 20 patients, during cholecystectomy in 46 patients, and postoperatively by ERS in 4 patients. In six patients, common duct stones became apparent 1 to 4 months after cholecystectomy. We conclude that trained general surgeons can perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy safely with risks comparable to those for conventional open cholecystectomy.

Ventral hernia repair by the laparoscopic approach.

An analysis of these results indicates that laparoscopic hernia repair can be performed safely by experienced laparoscopic surgeons, and with lower perioperative complication rates than for open hernia repair. Although the follow-up period for the laparoscopic repair is only 2 or 3 years, the recurrence rate is likely lower than with open repair. Most patients with ventral hernias are candidates for this laparoscopic repair if safe access and trocar placement can be obtained. The choice of mesh often provokes a debate among surgeons, but little practical difference in the results seems to exist between the two types of mesh available. Although the ePTFE mesh has a good theoretic basis for promoting tissue ingrowth on the parietal side of the mesh and minimizing adhesions to the bowel side of the mesh, data indicate that no difference in outcome exists related to adhesions or fistula formation (Tables 1 and 2), so surgeon preference and cost of the prosthesis should be the deciding variables. Fistulas are of concern because of the experience with mesh in the trauma patient and in the treatment of severe abdominal wall infections, when abdominal wall reconstruction often is performed in contaminated wounds in the acute phases and leaves the mesh exposed without soft tissue coverage. These conditions do not apply for most cases of elective hernia repair. Laparoscopic ventral hernia repair offers advantages over the conventional open mesh repair and may decrease the hernia recurrence rate to 10% to 15%. When properly performed, the laparoscopic approach does not and should not compromise the principles for successful mesh repair of ventral hernias.