Childhood Non-HDL Cholesterol and LDL Cholesterol and Adult Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Events.

BACKGROUND: Although low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) remains the primary cholesterol target in clinical practice in children and adults, non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) has been suggested as a more accurate measure of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk. We examined the associations of childhood non-HDL-C and LDL-C levels with adult ASCVD events and determined whether non-HDL-C has better utility than LDL-C in predicting adult ASCVD events. METHODS: This prospective cohort study included 21 126 participants from the i3C Consortium (International Childhood Cardiovascular Cohorts). Proportional hazards regressions were used to estimate the risk for incident fatal and fatal/nonfatal ASCVD events associated with childhood non-HDL-C and LDL-C levels (age- and sex-specific z scores; concordant/discordant categories defined by guideline-recommended cutoffs), adjusted for sex, Black race, cohort, age at and calendar year of child measurement, body mass index, and systolic blood pressure. Predictive utility was determined by the C index. RESULTS: After an average follow-up of 35 years, 153 fatal ASCVD events occurred in 21 126 participants (mean age at childhood visits, 11.9 years), and 352 fatal/nonfatal ASCVD events occurred in a subset of 11 296 participants who could be evaluated for this outcome. Childhood non-HDL-C and LDL-C levels were each associated with higher risk of fatal and fatal/nonfatal ASCVD events (hazard ratio ranged from 1.27 [95% CI, 1.14-1.41] to 1.35 [95% CI, 1.13-1.60] per unit increase in the risk factor z score). Non-HDL-C had better discriminative utility than LDL-C (difference in C index, 0.0054 [95% CI, 0.0006-0.0102] and 0.0038 [95% CI, 0.0008-0.0068] for fatal and fatal/nonfatal events, respectively). The discordant group with elevated non-HDL-C and normal LDL-C had a higher risk of ASCVD events compared with the concordant group with normal non-HDL-C and LDL-C (fatal events: hazard ratio, 1.90 [95% CI, 0.98-3.70]; fatal/nonfatal events: hazard ratio, 1.94 [95% CI, 1.23-3.06]). CONCLUSIONS: Childhood non-HDL-C and LDL-C levels are associated with ASCVD events in midlife. Non-HDL-C is better than LDL-C in predicting adult ASCVD events, particularly among individuals who had normal LDL-C but elevated non-HDL-C. These findings suggest that both non-HDL-C and LDL-C are useful in identifying children at higher risk of ASCVD events, but non-HDL-C may provide added prognostic information when it is discordantly higher than the corresponding LDL-C and has the practical advantage of being determined without a fasting sample.

Childhood Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Adult Cardiovascular Events.

BACKGROUND: Childhood cardiovascular risk factors predict subclinical adult cardiovascular disease, but links to clinical events are unclear. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study involving participants in the International Childhood Cardiovascular Cohort (i3C) Consortium, we evaluated whether childhood risk factors (at the ages of 3 to 19 years) were associated with cardiovascular events in adulthood after a mean follow-up of 35 years. Body-mass index, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol level, triglyceride level, and youth smoking were analyzed with the use of i3C-derived age- and sex-specific z scores and with a combined-risk z score that was calculated as the unweighted mean of the five risk z scores. An algebraically comparable adult combined-risk z score (before any cardiovascular event) was analyzed jointly with the childhood risk factors. Study outcomes were fatal cardiovascular events and fatal or nonfatal cardiovascular events, and analyses were performed after multiple imputation with the use of proportional-hazards regression. RESULTS: In the analysis of 319 fatal cardiovascular events that occurred among 38,589 participants (49.7% male and 15.0% Black; mean [±SD] age at childhood visits, 11.8±3.1 years), the hazard ratios for a fatal cardiovascular event in adulthood ranged from 1.30 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.14 to 1.47) per unit increase in the z score for total cholesterol level to 1.61 (95% CI, 1.21 to 2.13) for youth smoking (yes vs. no). The hazard ratio for a fatal cardiovascular event with respect to the combined-risk z score was 2.71 (95% CI, 2.23 to 3.29) per unit increase. The hazard ratios and their 95% confidence intervals in the analyses of fatal cardiovascular events were similar to those in the analyses of 779 fatal or nonfatal cardiovascular events that occurred among 20,656 participants who could be evaluated for this outcome. In the analysis of 115 fatal cardiovascular events that occurred in a subgroup of 13,401 participants (31.0±5.6 years of age at the adult measurement) who had data on adult risk factors, the adjusted hazard ratio with respect to the childhood combined-risk z score was 3.54 (95% CI, 2.57 to 4.87) per unit increase, and the mutually adjusted hazard ratio with respect to the change in the combined-risk z score from childhood to adulthood was 2.88 (95% CI, 2.06 to 4.05) per unit increase. The results were similar in the analysis of 524 fatal or nonfatal cardiovascular events. CONCLUSIONS: In this prospective cohort study, childhood risk factors and the change in the combined-risk z score between childhood and adulthood were associated with cardiovascular events in midlife. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health.).

Tracking of Cardiorespiratory Fitness from Childhood to Mid-adulthood.

High cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) in adulthood is important for survival from major chronic diseases and preserving good health. We examined how childhood CRF tracks, or persists, into adulthood. Among a cohort of 748 school children followed over 34 years, we found child CRF correlated with young- (r = 0.30) and mid-adulthood (r = 0.16) CRF.

The Influence of Dietary Counseling Over 20 Years on Tracking of Non-High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol from Infancy to Young Adulthood.

This 26-year study found that non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) levels tracked from infancy to young adulthood suggesting early-life non-HDL-C could predict future levels. However, infancy-onset dietary counseling reduced the odds of maintaining at-risk non-HDL-C, highlighting the potential importance of early interventions in preventing cardiovascular risk associated with high pediatric non-HDL-C.

Pediatric Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Health in Adulthood.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review summarizes current knowledge on blood pressure in children and adolescents (youth), with a focus on primary hypertension-the most common form of elevated blood pressure in this demographic. We examine its etiology, progression, and long-term cardiovascular implications. The review covers definitions and recommendations of blood pressure classifications, recent developments in measurement, epidemiological trends, findings from observational and clinical studies, and prevention and treatment, while identifying gaps in understanding and suggesting future research directions. RECENT FINDINGS: Youth hypertension is an escalating global issue, with regional and national variations in prevalence. While the principles of blood pressure measurement have remained largely consistent, challenges in this age group include a scarcity of automated devices that have passed independent validation for accuracy and a generally limited tolerance for ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. A multifaceted interplay of factors contributes to youth hypertension, impacting long-term cardiovascular health. Recent studies, including meta-analysis and sophisticated life-course modelling, reveal an adverse link between youth and life-course blood pressure and subclinical cardiovascular outcomes later in life. New evidence now provides the strongest evidence yet linking youth blood pressure with clinical cardiovascular events in adulthood. Some clinical trials have expanded our understanding of the safety and efficacy of antihypertensive medications in youth, but this remains an area that requires additional attention, particularly regarding varied screening approaches. This review outlines the potential role of preventing and managing blood pressure in youth to reduce future cardiovascular risk. A global perspective is necessary in formulating blood pressure definitions and strategies, considering the specific needs and circumstances in low- and middle-income countries compared to high-income countries.

Modelling the replacement of red and processed meat with plant-based alternatives and the estimated effect on insulin sensitivity in a cohort of Australian adults.

Dietary guidelines are increasingly promoting mostly plant-based diets, limits on red meat consumption, and plant-based sources of protein for health and environmental reasons. It is unclear how the resulting food substitutions associate with insulin resistance, a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. We modelled the replacement of red and processed meat with plant-based alternatives and the estimated effect on insulin sensitivity. We included 783 participants (55 % female) from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health study, a population-based cohort of Australians. In adulthood, diet was assessed at three time points using FFQ: 2004­2006, 2009­2011 and 2017­2019. We calculated the average daily intake of each food group in standard serves. Insulin sensitivity was estimated from fasting glucose and insulin concentrations in 2017­2019 (aged 39­49 years) using homoeostasis model assessment. Replacing red meat with a combination of plant-based alternatives was associated with higher insulin sensitivity (ß = 10·5 percentage points, 95 % CI (4·1, 17·4)). Adjustment for waist circumference attenuated this association by 61·7 %. Replacing red meat with either legumes, nuts/seeds or wholegrains was likewise associated with higher insulin sensitivity. Point estimates were similar but less precise when replacing processed meat with plant-based alternatives. Our modelling suggests that regularly replacing red meat, and possibly processed meat, with plant-based alternatives may associate with higher insulin sensitivity. Further, abdominal adiposity may be an important mediator in this relationship. Our findings support advice to prioritise plant-based sources of protein at the expense of red meat consumption.

Tracking of apolipoprotein B levels measured in childhood and adolescence: systematic review and meta-analysis.

To quantify the tracking of apolipoprotein B (apoB) levels from childhood and adolescence and compare the tracking of apoB with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, a systematic search of MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar was performed in October 2023 (PROSPERO protocol: CRD42022298663). Cohort studies that measured tracking of apoB from childhood/adolescence (< 19 years) with a minimum follow-up of 1 year, using tracking estimates such as correlation coefficients or tracking coefficients, were eligible. Pooled correlations were estimated using random-effects meta-analysis. Risk of bias was assessed with a review-specific tool. Ten studies of eight unique cohorts involving 4677 participants met the inclusion criteria. Tracking of apoB was observed (pooled r = 0.63; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.53-0.71; I2 = 96%) with no significant sources of heterogeneity identified. Data from five cohorts with tracking data for both lipids showed the degree of tracking was similar for apoB (pooled r = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.55-0.63) and LDL cholesterol (pooled r = 0.58; 95% CI = 0.47-0.68). Study risk of bias was moderate, mostly due to attrition and insufficient reporting. CONCLUSION: ApoB levels track strongly from childhood, but do not surpass LDL cholesterol in this regard. While there is strong evidence that apoB is more effective at predicting ASCVD risk than LDL cholesterol in adults, there is currently insufficient evidence to support its increased utility in pediatric settings. This also applies to tracking data, where more comprehensive data are required. WHAT IS KNOWN: • Apolipoprotein B is a known cause of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. • Apolipoprotein B levels are not typically measured in pediatric settings, where low-density lipoprotein cholesterol remains the primary lipid screening measure. WHAT IS NEW: • This meta-analysis of 10 studies showed apolipoprotein B levels tracked strongly from childhood but did not exceed low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in this regard. • More comprehensive tracking data are needed to provide sufficient evidence for increased utility of apolipoprotein B in pediatric settings.

Non-High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels From Childhood to Adulthood and Cardiovascular Disease Events.

Importance: Elevated non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C; a recommended measure of lipid-related cardiovascular risk) is common in children and increases risk of adult cardiovascular disease (CVD). Whether resolution of elevated childhood non-HDL-C levels by adulthood is associated with reduced risk of clinical CVD events is unknown. Objective: To examine the associations of non-HDL-C status between childhood and adulthood with incident CVD events. Design, Setting, and Participants: Individual participant data from 6 prospective cohorts of children (mean age at baseline, 10.7 years) in the US and Finland. Recruitment took place between 1970 and 1996, with a final follow-up in 2019. Exposures: Child (age 3-19 years) and adult (age 20-40 years) non-HDL-C age- and sex-specific z scores and categories according to clinical guideline-recommended cutoffs for dyslipidemia. Main Outcomes and Measures: Incident fatal and nonfatal CVD events adjudicated by medical records. Results: Over a mean length of follow-up of 8.9 years after age 40 years, 147 CVD events occurred among 5121 participants (60% women; 15% Black). Both childhood and adult non-HDL-C levels were associated with increased risk of CVD events (hazard ratio [HR], 1.42 [95% CI, 1.18-1.70] and HR, 1.50 [95% CI, 1.26-1.78] for a 1-unit increase in z score, respectively), but the association for childhood non-HDL-C was reduced when adjusted for adult levels (HR, 1.12 [95% CI, 0.89-1.41]). A complementary analysis showed that both childhood non-HDL-C levels and the change between childhood and adulthood were independently associated with the outcome, suggesting that from a preventive perspective, both childhood non-HDL-C levels and the change into adulthood are informative. Compared with those whose non-HDL-C levels remained within the guideline-recommended range in childhood and adulthood, participants who had incident non-HDL-C dyslipidemia from childhood to adulthood and those with persistent dyslipidemia had increased risks of CVD events (HR, 2.17 [95% CI, 1.00-4.69] and HR, 5.17 [95% CI, 2.80-9.56], respectively). Individuals who had dyslipidemic non-HDL-C in childhood but whose non-HDL-C levels were within the guideline-recommended range in adulthood did not have a significantly increased risk (HR, 1.13 [95% CI, 0.50-2.56]). Conclusions and Relevance: Individuals with persistent non-HDL-C dyslipidemia from childhood to adulthood had an increased risk of CVD events, but those in whom dyslipidemic non-HDL-C levels resolve by adulthood have similar risk to individuals who were never dyslipidemic. These findings suggest that interventions to prevent and reduce elevated childhood non-HDL-C levels may help prevent premature CVD.

Global, regional, and national burden of cardiovascular diseases in youths and young adults aged 15-39 years in 204 countries/territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis of Global Burden of Disease Study 2019.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the temporal trends in the burden of overall and type-specific cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in youths and young adults and its attributable risk factors is important for effective and targeted prevention strategies and measures. We aimed to provide a standardized and comprehensive estimation of the prevalence, incidence, disability-adjusted life years (DALY), and mortality rate of CVDs and its associated risk factors in youths and young adults aged 15-39 years at global, regional, and national levels. METHODS: We applied Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 analytical tools to calculate the age-standardized incidence, prevalence, DALY, and mortality rate of overall and type-specific CVDs (i.e., rheumatic heart disease, ischemic heart disease, stroke, hypertensive heart disease, non-rheumatic valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy and myocarditis, atrial fibrillation and flutter, aortic aneurysm, and endocarditis) among youths and young adults aged 15-39 years by age, sex, region, sociodemographic index and across 204 countries/territories from 1990 to 2019, and proportional DALY of CVDs attributable to associated risk factors. RESULTS: The global age-standardized DALY (per 100,000 population) for CVDs in youths and young adults significantly decreased from 1257.51 (95% confidence interval 1257.03, 1257.99) in 1990 to 990.64 (990.28, 990.99) in 2019 with an average annual percent change (AAPC) of - 0.81% (- 1.04%, - 0.58%, P < 0.001), and the age-standardized mortality rate also significantly decreased from 19.83 (19.77, 19.89) to 15.12 (15.08, 15.16) with an AAPC of - 0.93% (- 1.21%, - 0.66%, P < 0.001). However, the global age-standardized incidence rate (per 100,000 population) moderately increased from 126.80 (126.65, 126.95) in 1990 to 129.85 (129.72, 129.98) in 2019 with an AAPC of 0.08% (0.00%, 0.16%, P = 0.040), and the age-standardized prevalence rate significantly increased from 1477.54 (1477.03, 1478.06) to 1645.32 (1644.86, 1645.78) with an AAPC of 0.38% (0.35%, 0.40%, P < 0.001). In terms of type-specific CVDs, the age-standardized incidence and prevalence rate in rheumatic heart disease, prevalence rate in ischemic heart disease, and incidence rate in endocarditis increased from 1990 to 2019 (all P < 0.001). When stratified by sociodemographic index (SDI), the countries/territories with low and low-middle SDI had a higher burden of CVDs than the countries/territories with high and high-middle SDI. Women had a higher prevalence rate of CVDs than men, whereas men had a higher DALY and mortality rate than women. High systolic blood pressure, high body mass index, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were the main attributable risk factors for DALY of CVDs for all included countries and territories. Household air pollution from solid fuels was an additional attributable risk factor for DALY of CVDs in low and low-middle SDI countries compared with middle, high-middle, and high SDI countries. Compared with women, DALY for CVDs in men was more likely to be affected by almost all risk factors, especially for smoking. CONCLUSIONS: There is a substantial global burden of CVDs in youths and young adults in 2019. The burden of overall and type-specific CVDs varied by age, sex, SDI, region, and country. CVDs in young people are largely preventable, which deserve more attention in the targeted implementation of effective primary prevention strategies and expansion of young-people's responsive healthcare systems.

Association of the American Heart Association's new "Life's Essential 8" with all-cause and cardiovascular disease-specific mortality: prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The American Heart Association recently updated its construct of what constitutes cardiovascular health (CVH), called Life's Essential 8. We examined the association of total and individual CVH metrics according to Life's Essential 8 with all-cause and cardiovascular disease (CVD)-specific mortality later in  life. METHODS: Data were from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2018 at baseline linked to the 2019 National Death Index records. Total and individual CVH metric scores including diet, physical activity, nicotine exposure, sleep health, body mass index, blood lipids, blood glucose, and blood pressure were classified as 0-49 (low level), 50-74 (intermediate level), and 75-100 (high level) points. The total CVH metric score (the average of the 8 metrics) as a continuous variable was also used for dose-response analysis. The main outcomes included all-cause and CVD-specific mortality. RESULTS: A total of 19,951 US adults aged 30-79 years were included in this study. Only 19.5% of adults achieved a high total CVH score, whereas 24.1% had a low score. During a median follow-up of 7.6 years, compared with adults with a low total CVH score, those with an intermediate or high total CVH score had 40% (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 0.60, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.51-0.71) and 58% (adjusted HR 0.42, 95% CI 0.32-0.56) reduced risk of all-cause mortality. The corresponding adjusted HRs (95%CIs) were 0.62 (0.46-0.83) and 0.36 (0.21-0.59) for CVD-specific mortality. The population-attributable fractions for high (score ≥ 75 points) vs. low or intermediate (score < 75 points) CVH scores were 33.4% for all-cause mortality and 42.9% for CVD-specific mortality. Among all 8 individual CVH metrics, physical activity, nicotine exposure, and diet accounted for a large proportion of the population-attributable risks for all-cause mortality, whereas physical activity, blood pressure, and blood glucose accounted for a large proportion of CVD-specific mortality. There were approximately linear dose-response associations of total CVH score (as a continuous variable) with all-cause and CVD-specific mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Achieving a higher CVH score according to the new Life's Essential 8 was associated with a reduced risk of all-cause and CVD-specific mortality. Public health and healthcare efforts targeting the promotion of higher CVH scores could provide considerable benefits to reduce the mortality burden later in life.

Establishing international optimal cut-offs of waist-to-height ratio for predicting cardiometabolic risk in children and adolescents aged 6-18 years.

BACKGROUND: Waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) has been proposed as a simple and effective screening tool for assessing central obesity and cardiometabolic risk in both adult and pediatric populations. However, evidence suggests that the use of a uniform WHtR cut-off of 0.50 may not be universally optimal for pediatric populations globally. We aimed to determine the optimal cut-offs of WHtR in children and adolescents with increased cardiometabolic risk across different countries worldwide. METHODS: We used ten population-based cross-sectional data on 24,605 children and adolescents aged 6-18 years from Brazil, China, Greece, Iran, Italy, Korea, South Africa, Spain, the UK, and the USA for establishing optimal WHtR cut-offs. We performed an external independent test (9,619 children and adolescents aged 6-18 years who came from other six countries) to validate the optimal WHtR cut-offs based on the predicting performance for at least two or three cardiometabolic risk factors. RESULTS: Based on receiver operator characteristic curve analyses of various WHtR cut-offs to discriminate those with ≥ 2 cardiometabolic risk factors, the relatively optimal percentile cut-offs of WHtR in the normal weight subsample population in each country did not always coincide with a single fixed percentile, but varied from the 75th to 95th percentiles across the ten countries. However, these relatively optimal percentile values tended to cluster irrespective of sex, metabolic syndrome (MetS) criteria used, and WC measurement position. In general, using ≥ 2 cardiometabolic risk factors as the predictive outcome, the relatively optimal WHtR cut-off was around 0.50 in European and the US youths but was lower, around 0.46, in Asian, African, and South American youths. Secondary analyses that directly tested WHtR values ranging from 0.42 to 0.56 at 0.01 increments largely confirmed the results of the main analyses. In addition, the proposed cut-offs of 0.50 and 0.46 for two specific pediatric populations, respectively, showed a good performance in predicting ≥ 2 or ≥ 3 cardiometabolic risk factors in external independent test populations from six countries (Brazil, China, Germany, Italy, Korea, and the USA). CONCLUSIONS: The proposed international WHtR cut-offs are easy and useful to identify central obesity and cardiometabolic risk in children and adolescents globally, thus allowing international comparison across populations.

A Healthful Plant-Based Eating Pattern Is Longitudinally Associated with Higher Insulin Sensitivity in Australian Adults.

BACKGROUND: A healthful plant-based eating pattern is associated with lower type 2 diabetes risk; however, the association with its preceding state, impaired insulin sensitivity, is less well established, particularly in younger populations with repeated measures of diet over time. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to examine the longitudinal relationship between a healthful plant-based eating pattern and insulin sensitivity in young to middle-aged adults. METHODS: We included 667 participants from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study, a population-based cohort in Australia. Healthful plant-based diet index (hPDI) scores were derived from food frequency questionnaire data. Plant foods considered "healthful" were scored positively (e.g., whole grains, fruit, vegetables), with all remaining foods scored reversely (e.g., refined grains, soft drinks, meat). Updated homeostatic model assessment (HOMA2) estimated insulin sensitivity from fasting insulin and glucose concentrations. We used linear mixed-effects regression to analyze data from 2 time points: CDAH-1 (2004-2006, 26-36 y of age) and CDAH-3 (2017-2019, 36-49 y of age). hPDI scores were modeled as between- and within-person effects (i.e., a participant's overall mean and their deviation from said mean at each time point, respectively). RESULTS: The median follow-up duration was 13 y. In our primary analysis, each 10-unit difference in hPDI score was associated with higher log-HOMA2 insulin sensitivity [95% confidence interval], with between-person (ß = 0.11 [0.05, 0.17], P < 0.001) and within-person effects (ß = 0.10 [0.04, 0.16], P = 0.001). The within-person effect persisted despite accounting for compliance with dietary guidelines. Adjustment for waist circumference attenuated the between-person effect by 70% (P = 0.26) and the within-person effect by 40% (P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: In young to middle-aged Australian adults, a healthful plant-based eating pattern (determined using hPDI scores) was longitudinally associated with higher insulin sensitivity, and therefore, potentially lower type 2 diabetes risk later in life.

Use of clinical scores in young Australian adults for prediction of atherosclerosis in middle age.

We sought to apply a simple cardiovascular health tool not requiring laboratory tests (the Fuster-BEWAT score, FBS) to predict subclinical atherosclerosis. This study included 2657 young adults (< 40 years of age). In the prognostic group (n = 894, followed for 13 years until aged 40-50 years at follow-up), the primary outcome was presence of carotid plaque measured by carotid ultrasound at follow-up. Of these 894 participants, 86 (9.6%) had unilateral, and 23 participants (2.6%) had bilateral, carotid plaques at follow-up. The baseline FBS was predictive of carotid plaque at follow-up [odds ratio OR = 0.86 (95% CI 0.77-0.96) per 1-SD increase in FBS], similar to prediction from Pooled Cohort Equation [PCE, OR = 0.72 (0.61-0.85) per 1-SD decrease in PCE]. Risk scores at baseline predicted outcomes more strongly than those at follow-up, and did so independently of any changes over 13 years of follow-up. Similar discrimination for predicting carotid plaque after 13 years was found for both baseline FBS [C-statistic = 0.68 (95% CI 0.62-0.74)] and PCE [C-statistic = 0.69 (95% CI 0.63-0.75)]. Application of this FBS prognostic information to a contemporary cohort of 1763 young adults anticipates the future development of plaque in 305 (17.3%), especially in the 1494 participants (85%) with ≤ 2 metrics of ideal health. In conclusions, FBS measured in young adulthood predicted atherosclerosis 13 years later in middle age, independent of score changes over the follow-up period, emphasizing the importance of early damage to vascular health. FBS may be a simple and feasible risk score for engaging low-risk young people with reduction of future cardiovascular risk.

Exploring the direct and indirect effects of cardiovascular disease risk factors on exercise blood pressure.

OBJECTIVE: Exaggerated exercise blood pressure (BP) is independently associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes. However, it is unknown how individual CVD risk factors may interact with one another to influence exercise BP. The aim of this study was to quantify direct and indirect associations between CVD risk factors and exercise BP, to determine what CVD risk factor/s most-strongly relate to exercise BP. METHODS: In a cross-sectional design, 660 participants (44 ± 2.6 years, 54% male) from the population-based Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study had BP measured during low-intensity fixed-workload cycling. CVD risk factors were measured, including body composition, clinic (rest) BP, blood biomarkers, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Associations between CVD risk factors and exercise BP were assessed using linear regression, with direct and indirect pathways of association assessed via structural equation model. RESULTS: Sex, waist-to-hip ratio, fitness, and clinic BP were independently associated with exercise systolic BP (SBP), and along with age, had direct associations with exercise SBP (p < 0.05 all). Most CVD risk factors were indirectly associated with exercise SBP via a relation with clinic BP (p < 0.05 all). Clinic BP, waist-to-hip ratio, and fitness were most-strongly associated (direct and indirect association) with exercise SBP (ß[95% CI]: 9.35 [8.04, 10.67], 4.91 [2.56, 7.26], and -2.88 [-4.25, -1.51] mm Hg/SD, respectively). CONCLUSION: Many CVD risk factors are associated with exercise BP, mostly with indirect effects via clinic BP. Clinic BP, body composition, and fitness were most-strongly associated with exercise BP. These results may elucidate how lifestyle modification could be a primary strategy to decrease exaggerated exercise BP-related CVD risk.

Tracking handgrip strength asymmetry from childhood to mid-life.

AIM: Determine if asymmetric handgrip strength exists in childhood and adulthood and quantify the degree of tracking of handgrip strength asymmetry over time. METHODS: Participants from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study had their right and left handgrip strength measured using handgrip dynamometry in childhood (1985: 9-15 y), young adulthood (2004-06: 26-36 y) and/or mid-adulthood (2014-19: 36-49 y). Handgrip strength asymmetry was calculated as: strongest handgrip strength/strongest handgrip strength on the other hand. Participants were categorised based on the degree of their asymmetry (0.0%-10.0%, 10.1%-20.0%, 20.1%-30.0%, >30.0%). Tracking was quantified using Spearman's correlations and log binomial regression. RESULTS: Handgrip strength asymmetry was present in childhood and adulthood (>30.0% asymmetry: childhood = 6%, young adulthood = 3%, mid-adulthood = 4%). Handgrip strength asymmetry did not track between childhood and young- (r = 0.06, 95% CI = -0.02, 0.12) and mid-adulthood (r = 0.01, 95% CI = -0.09, 0.10). Tracking was more apparent between young- and mid-adulthood (r = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.09, 0.22). Participants with >30.0% asymmetry were at greater risk to maintain this status between childhood and young- (RR = 3.53, 95% CI = 1.15, 10.87) and mid-adulthood (RR = 2.14, 95% CI = 0.45, 10.20). CONCLUSION: Although handgrip strength asymmetry tracked relatively poorly, asymmetric handgrip strength was apparent in children and adults. Handgrip strength asymmetry does not exclusively affect older adults and should be considered in protocols to better understand its role across the life course.

Smoking control in China: A need for comprehensive national legislation.

In this Perspective, Bo Xi and Costan Magnussen discuss the trends in smoking prevalence in China reported by Mei Zhang and colleagues, and the need for effective tobacco control strategies.

Prevalence and trend of smokeless tobacco use and its associated factors among adolescents aged 12-16 years in 138 countries/territories, 1999-2019.

BACKGROUND: Smokeless tobacco use is popular in some regions worldwide, but it receives less attention compared to cigarette smoking. We aimed to estimate the recent prevalence of, and trends in, smokeless tobacco use and to examine its associated factors among adolescents aged 12-16 years in 138 countries/territories (hereafter "countries") from 1999 to 2019. METHODS: Data from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey conducted in 138 countries in 2010-2019 and the National Youth Tobacco Survey conducted in the United States in 2019 were used to calculate the prevalence of current smokeless tobacco use and investigate its associated factors among adolescents aged 12-16 years. We also assessed the trend in the prevalence of smokeless tobacco use in 100 countries that had conducted more than one survey from 1999 to 2019. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of current smokeless tobacco use was 4.4% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4.0-4.9), with 5.7% (5.1-6.3) for boys, 3.1% (2.6-3.5) for girls, 3.9% (3.5-4.4) for adolescents aged 12-14 years and 5.4% (4.8-5.9) for those aged 15-16 years. The prevalence was highest in the South-East Asian region (6.1%, 4.4-7.7) and lowest in the Western Pacific region (2.0%, 1.7-2.4). The prevalence of smokeless tobacco use decreased in 57 of 100 countries, increased in 32 countries, and remained unchanged in 11 countries. Current cigarette smoking (odds ratio [OR]=2.00, 95% CI=1.68-2.39), other tobacco product use (OR=6.03, 95% CI=4.92-7.40), tobacco advertisement exposure (OR=1.44, 95% CI=1.19-1.74), being offered free tobacco products (OR=2.01, 95% CI=1.66-2.42), and not being taught about dangers of smoking (OR=1.28, 95% CI=1.09-1.50) were all positively associated with current smokeless tobacco use. CONCLUSIONS: Smokeless tobacco use among adolescents remains a public health concern worldwide. Although the prevalence among adolescents decreased in most countries, it remains high especially in the South-East Asian region. More strict and effective strategies and measures are needed to further curb the smokeless tobacco use among adolescents.

Decreasing severity of obesity from early to late adolescence and young adulthood associates with longitudinal metabolomic changes implicated in lower cardiometabolic disease risk.

BACKGROUND: Obesity in childhood is associated with metabolic dysfunction, adverse subclinical cardiovascular phenotypes and adult cardiovascular disease. Longitudinal studies of youth with obesity investigating changes in severity of obesity with metabolomic profiles are sparse. We investigated associations between (i) baseline body mass index (BMI) and follow-up metabolomic profiles; (ii) change in BMI with follow-up metabolomic profiles; and (iii) change in BMI with change in metabolomic profiles (mean interval 5.5 years). METHODS: Participants (n = 98, 52% males) were recruited from the Childhood Overweight Biorepository of Australia study. At baseline and follow-up, BMI and the % >95th BMI-centile (percentage above the age-, and sex-specific 95th BMI-centile) indicate severity of obesity, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy profiling of 72 metabolites/ratios, log-transformed and scaled to standard deviations (SD), was performed in fasting serum. Fully adjusted linear regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Mean (SD) age and % >95th BMI-centile were 10.3 (SD 3.5) years and 134.6% (19.0) at baseline, 15.8 (3.7) years and 130.7% (26.2) at follow-up. Change in BMI over time, but not baseline BMI, was associated with metabolites at follow-up. Each unit (kg/m2) decrease in sex- and age-adjusted BMI was associated with change (SD; 95% CI; p value) in metabolites of: alanine (-0.07; -0.11 to -0.04; p < 0.001), phenylalanine (-0.07; -0.10 to -0.04; p < 0.001), tyrosine (-0.07; -0.10 to -0.04; p < 0.001), glycoprotein acetyls (-0.06; -0.09 to -0.04; p < 0.001), degree of fatty acid unsaturation (0.06; 0.02 to 0.10; p = 0.003), monounsaturated fatty acids (-0.04; -0.07 to -0.01; p = 0.004), ratio of ApoB/ApoA1 (-0.05; -0.07 to -0.02; p = 0.001), VLDL-cholesterol (-0.04; -0.06 to -0.01; p = 0.01), HDL cholesterol (0.05; 0.08 to 0.1; p = 0.01), pyruvate (-0.08; -0.11 to -0.04; p < 0.001), acetoacetate (0.07; 0.02 to 0.11; p = 0.005) and 3-hydroxybuturate (0.07; 0.02 to 0.11; p = 0.01). Results using the % >95th BMI-centile were largely consistent with age- and sex-adjusted BMI measures. CONCLUSIONS: In children and young adults with obesity, decreasing the severity of obesity was associated with changes in metabolomic profiles consistent with lower cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk in adults.

Obesity during childhood is associated with higher cancer mortality rate during adulthood: the i3C Consortium.

BACKGROUND: In high-income countries, cancer is the leading cause of death among middle-aged adults. Prospective data on the effects of childhood risk exposures on subsequent cancer mortality are scarce. METHODS: We examined whether childhood body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, glucose and lipid levels were associated with adult cancer mortality, using data from 21,012 children enrolled aged 3-19 years in seven prospective cohort studies from the U.S., Australia, and Finland that have followed participants from childhood into adulthood. Cancer mortality (cancer as a primary or secondary cause of death) was captured using registries. RESULTS: 354 cancer deaths occurred over the follow-up. In age-, sex, and cohort-adjusted analyses, childhood BMI (Hazard ratio [HR], 1.13; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03-1.24 per 1-SD increase) and childhood glucose (HR 1.22; 95%CI 1.01-1.47 per 1-SD increase), were associated with subsequent cancer mortality. In a multivariable analysis adjusted for age, sex, cohort, and childhood measures of fasting glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and systolic blood pressure, childhood BMI remained as an independent predictor of subsequent cancer mortality (HR, 1.24; 95%CI, 1.03-1.49). The association of childhood BMI and subsequent cancer mortality persisted after adjustment for adulthood BMI (HR for childhood BMI, 1.35; 95%CI 1.12-1.63). CONCLUSIONS: Higher childhood BMI was independently associated with increased overall cancer mortality.

Risk Factor Profile in Youth, Genetic Risk, and Adulthood Cognitive Function: The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study.

INTRODUCTION: The role of risk factor profile in childhood and adolescence on adulthood cognitive function and whether it differs by genetic risk is still obscure. To bring this evidence, we determined cognitive domain-specific youth risk factor profiles leveraging the childhood/adolescence data from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study and examined whether genetic propensity for poor cognitive function modifies the association between the risk profiles and adulthood cognitive function. METHODS: From 1980, a population-based cohort of 3,596 children (age 3-18 years) has been repeatedly followed up for 31 years. Computerized cognitive test measuring (1) memory and learning, (2) short-term working memory, (3) reaction time, and (4) information processing was performed for 2,026 participants (age 34-49 years). Cognitive domain-specific youth risk profile scores, including physical and environmental factors, were assessed from the data collected at baseline and categorized into favourable, intermediate, and unfavourable. A polygenic risk score for a poor cognitive function was categorized into low, intermediate, and high risk. RESULTS: At all genetic risk levels, a favourable youth risk factor profile is associated with better learning and memory, short-term working memory, and information processing compared to unfavourable risk profile (e.g., ß = 0.501 SD, 95% CI: 0.043-0.959 for memory and learning among participants with high genetic risk). However, no significant interactions were observed between the youth risk factor profile score and genetic propensity for any cognitive domain (p > 0.299 for all). CONCLUSION: A favourable youth risk factor profile may be beneficial for cognitive function in adulthood, irrespective of genetic propensity for poor cognitive function.