Immunization expands B cells specific to HIV-1 V3 glycan in mice and macaques.

Broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies protect against infection with HIV-1 in animal models, suggesting that a vaccine that elicits these antibodies would be protective in humans. However, it has not yet been possible to induce adequate serological responses by vaccination. Here, to activate B cells that express precursors of broadly neutralizing antibodies within polyclonal repertoires, we developed an immunogen, RC1, that facilitates the recognition of the variable loop 3 (V3)-glycan patch on the envelope protein of HIV-1. RC1 conceals non-conserved immunodominant regions by the addition of glycans and/or multimerization on virus-like particles. Immunization of mice, rabbits and rhesus macaques with RC1 elicited serological responses that targeted the V3-glycan patch. Antibody cloning and cryo-electron microscopy structures of antibody-envelope complexes confirmed that immunization with RC1 expands clones of B cells that carry the anti-V3-glycan patch antibodies, which resemble precursors of human broadly neutralizing antibodies. Thus, RC1 may be a suitable priming immunogen for sequential vaccination strategies in the context of polyclonal repertoires.

Early antibody therapy can induce long-lasting immunity to SHIV.

Highly potent and broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 antibodies (bNAbs) have been used to prevent and treat lentivirus infections in humanized mice, macaques, and humans. In immunotherapy experiments, administration of bNAbs to chronically infected animals transiently suppresses virus replication, which invariably returns to pre-treatment levels and results in progression to clinical disease. Here we show that early administration of bNAbs in a macaque simian/human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) model is associated with very low levels of persistent viraemia, which leads to the establishment of T-cell immunity and resultant long-term infection control. Animals challenged with SHIVAD8-EO by mucosal or intravenous routes received a single 2-week course of two potent passively transferred bNAbs (3BNC117 and 10-1074 (refs 13, 14)). Viraemia remained undetectable for 56-177 days, depending on bNAb half-life in vivo. Moreover, in the 13 treated monkeys, plasma virus loads subsequently declined to undetectable levels in 6 controller macaques. Four additional animals maintained their counts of T cells carrying the CD4 antigen (CD4+) and very low levels of viraemia persisted for over 2 years. The frequency of cells carrying replication-competent virus was less than 1 per 106 circulating CD4+ T cells in the six controller macaques. Infusion of a T-cell-depleting anti-CD8ß monoclonal antibody to the controller animals led to a specific decline in levels of CD8+ T cells and the rapid reappearance of plasma viraemia. In contrast, macaques treated for 15 weeks with combination anti-retroviral therapy, beginning on day 3 after infection, experienced sustained rebound plasma viraemia when treatment was interrupted. Our results show that passive immunotherapy during acute SHIV infection differs from combination anti-retroviral therapy in that it facilitates the emergence of potent CD8+ T-cell immunity able to durably suppress virus replication.

Prevention and treatment of SHIVAD8 infection in rhesus macaques by a potent d-peptide HIV entry inhibitor.

Cholesterol-PIE12-trimer (CPT31) is a potent d-peptide HIV entry inhibitor that targets the highly conserved gp41 N-peptide pocket region. CPT31 exhibited strong inhibitory breadth against diverse panels of primary virus isolates. In a simian-HIV chimeric virus AD8 (SHIVAD8) macaque model, CPT31 prevented infection from a single high-dose rectal challenge. In chronically infected animals, CPT31 monotherapy rapidly reduced viral load by ∼2 logs before rebound occurred due to the emergence of drug resistance. In chronically infected animals with viremia initially controlled by combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), CPT31 monotherapy prevented viral rebound after discontinuation of cART. These data establish CPT31 as a promising candidate for HIV prevention and treatment.

A single injection of anti-HIV-1 antibodies protects against repeated SHIV challenges.

Despite the success of potent anti-retroviral drugs in controlling human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection, little progress has been made in generating an effective HIV-1 vaccine. Although passive transfer of anti-HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies can protect mice or macaques against a single high-dose challenge with HIV or simian/human (SIV/HIV) chimaeric viruses (SHIVs) respectively, the long-term efficacy of a passive antibody transfer approach for HIV-1 has not been examined. Here we show, on the basis of the relatively long-term protection conferred by hepatitis A immune globulin, the efficacy of a single injection (20 mg kg(-1)) of four anti-HIV-1-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (VRC01, VRC01-LS, 3BNC117, and 10-1074 (refs 9 - 12)) in blocking repeated weekly low-dose virus challenges of the clade B SHIVAD8. Compared with control animals, which required two to six challenges (median = 3) for infection, a single broadly neutralizing antibody infusion prevented virus acquisition for up to 23 weekly challenges. This effect depended on antibody potency and half-life. The highest levels of plasma-neutralizing activity and, correspondingly, the longest protection were found in monkeys administered the more potent antibodies 3BNC117 and 10-1074 (median = 13 and 12.5 weeks, respectively). VRC01, which showed lower plasma-neutralizing activity, protected for a shorter time (median = 8 weeks). The introduction of a mutation that extends antibody half-life into the crystallizable fragment (Fc) domain of VRC01 increased median protection from 8 to 14.5 weeks. If administered to populations at high risk of HIV-1 transmission, such an immunoprophylaxis regimen could have a major impact on virus transmission.

Potential of conventional & bispecific broadly neutralizing antibodies for prevention of HIV-1 subtype A, C & D infections.

There is great interest in passive transfer of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) and engineered bispecific antibodies (Abs) for prevention of HIV-1 infections due to their in vitro neutralization breadth and potency against global isolates and long in vivo half-lives. We compared the potential of eight bnAbs and two bispecific Abs currently under clinical development, and their 2 Ab combinations, to prevent infection by dominant HIV-1 subtypes in sub-Saharan Africa. Using in vitro neutralization data for Abs against 25 subtype A, 100 C, and 20 D pseudoviruses, we modeled neutralization by single Abs and 2 Ab combinations assuming realistic target concentrations of 10µg/ml total for bnAbs and combinations, and 5µg/ml for bispecifics. We used IC80 breadth-potency, completeness of neutralization, and simultaneous coverage by both Abs in the combination as metrics to characterize prevention potential. Additionally, we predicted in vivo protection by Abs and combinations by modeling protection as a function of in vitro neutralization based on data from a macaque simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) challenge study. Our model suggests that nearly complete neutralization of a given virus is needed for in vivo protection (~98% neutralization for 50% relative protection). Using the above metrics, we found that bnAb combinations should outperform single bnAbs, as expected; however, different combinations are optimal for different subtypes. Remarkably, a single bispecific 10E8-iMAb, which targets HIV Env and host-cell CD4, outperformed all combinations of two conventional bnAbs, with 95-97% predicted relative protection across subtypes. Combinations that included 10E8-iMAb substantially improved protection over use of 10E8-iMAb alone. Our results highlight the promise of 10E8-iMAb and its combinations to prevent HIV-1 infections in sub-Saharan Africa.

Mapping Polyclonal HIV-1 Antibody Responses via Next-Generation Neutralization Fingerprinting.

Computational neutralization fingerprinting, NFP, is an efficient and accurate method for predicting the epitope specificities of polyclonal antibody responses to HIV-1 infection. Here, we present next-generation NFP algorithms that substantially improve prediction accuracy for individual donors and enable serologic analysis for entire cohorts. Specifically, we developed algorithms for: (a) selection of optimized virus neutralization panels for NFP analysis, (b) estimation of NFP prediction confidence for each serum sample, and (c) identification of sera with potentially novel epitope specificities. At the individual donor level, the next-generation NFP algorithms particularly improved the ability to detect multiple epitope specificities in a sample, as confirmed both for computationally simulated polyclonal sera and for samples from HIV-infected donors. Specifically, the next-generation NFP algorithms detected multiple specificities in twice as many samples of simulated sera. Further, unlike the first-generation NFP, the new algorithms were able to detect both of the previously confirmed antibody specificities, VRC01-like and PG9-like, in donor CHAVI 0219. At the cohort level, analysis of ~150 broadly neutralizing HIV-infected donor samples suggested a potential connection between clade of infection and types of elicited epitope specificities. Most notably, while 10E8-like antibodies were observed in infections from different clades, an enrichment of such antibodies was predicted for clade B samples. Ultimately, such large-scale analyses of antibody responses to HIV-1 infection can help guide the design of epitope-specific vaccines that are tailored to take into account the prevalence of infecting clades within a specific geographic region. Overall, the next-generation NFP technology will be an important tool for the analysis of broadly neutralizing polyclonal antibody responses against HIV-1.

Antibody-mediated immunotherapy of macaques chronically infected with SHIV suppresses viraemia.

Neutralizing antibodies can confer immunity to primate lentiviruses by blocking infection in macaque models of AIDS. However, earlier studies of anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) neutralizing antibodies administered to infected individuals or humanized mice reported poor control of virus replication and the rapid emergence of resistant variants. A new generation of anti-HIV-1 monoclonal antibodies, possessing extraordinary potency and breadth of neutralizing activity, has recently been isolated from infected individuals. These neutralizing antibodies target different regions of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein including the CD4-binding site, glycans located in the V1/V2, V3 and V4 regions, and the membrane proximal external region of gp41 (refs 9-14). Here we have examined two of the new antibodies, directed to the CD4-binding site and the V3 region (3BNC117 and 10-1074, respectively), for their ability to block infection and suppress viraemia in macaques infected with the R5 tropic simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV)-AD8, which emulates many of the pathogenic and immunogenic properties of HIV-1 during infections of rhesus macaques. Either antibody alone can potently block virus acquisition. When administered individually to recently infected macaques, the 10-1074 antibody caused a rapid decline in virus load to undetectable levels for 4-7 days, followed by virus rebound during which neutralization-resistant variants became detectable. When administered together, a single treatment rapidly suppressed plasma viraemia for 3-5 weeks in some long-term chronically SHIV-infected animals with low CD4(+) T-cell levels. A second cycle of anti-HIV-1 monoclonal antibody therapy, administered to two previously treated animals, successfully controlled virus rebound. These results indicate that immunotherapy or a combination of immunotherapy plus conventional antiretroviral drugs might be useful as a treatment for chronically HIV-1-infected individuals experiencing immune dysfunction.

DNA Prime-Boost Vaccine Regimen To Increase Breadth, Magnitude, and Cytotoxicity of the Cellular Immune Responses to Subdominant Gag Epitopes of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus and HIV.

HIV sequence diversity and the propensity of eliciting immunodominant responses targeting variable regions of the HIV proteome are hurdles in the development of an effective AIDS vaccine. An HIV-derived conserved element (CE) p24gag plasmid DNA (pDNA) vaccine is able to redirect immunodominant responses to otherwise subdominant and often more vulnerable viral targets. By homology to the HIV immunogen, seven CE were identified in SIV p27Gag Analysis of 31 rhesus macaques vaccinated with full-length SIV gag pDNA showed inefficient induction (58% response rate) of cellular responses targeting these CE. In contrast, all 14 macaques immunized with SIV p27CE pDNA developed robust T cell responses recognizing CE. Vaccination with p27CE pDNA was also critical for the efficient induction and increased the frequency of Ag-specific T cells with cytotoxic potential (granzyme B+ CD107a+) targeting subdominant CE epitopes, compared with the responses elicited by the p57gag pDNA vaccine. Following p27CE pDNA priming, two booster regimens, gag pDNA or codelivery of p27CE+gag pDNA, significantly increased the levels of CE-specific T cells. However, the CE+gag pDNA booster vaccination elicited significantly broader CE epitope recognition, and thus, a more profound alteration of the immunodominance hierarchy. Vaccination with HIV molecules showed that CE+gag pDNA booster regimen further expanded the breadth of HIV CE responses. Hence, SIV/HIV vaccine regimens comprising CE pDNA prime and CE+gag pDNA booster vaccination significantly increased cytotoxic T cell responses to subdominant highly conserved Gag epitopes and maximized response breadth.

Antagonism of BST-2/Tetherin Is a Conserved Function of the Env Glycoprotein of Primary HIV-2 Isolates.

Although HIV-2 does not encode a vpu gene, the ability to antagonize bone marrow stromal antigen 2 (BST-2) is conserved in some HIV-2 isolates, where it is controlled by the Env glycoprotein. We previously reported that a single-amino-acid difference between the laboratory-adapted ROD10 and ROD14 Envs controlled the enhancement of virus release (referred to here as Vpu-like) activity. Here, we investigated how conserved the Vpu-like activity is in primary HIV-2 isolates. We found that half of the 34 tested primary HIV-2 Env isolates obtained from 7 different patients enhanced virus release. Interestingly, most HIV-2 patients harbored a mixed population of viruses containing or lacking Vpu-like activity. Vpu-like activity and Envelope functionality varied significantly among Env isolates; however, there was no direct correlation between these two functions, suggesting they evolved independently. In comparing the Env sequences from one HIV-2 patient, we found that similar to the ROD10/ROD14 Envs, a single-amino-acid change (T568I) in the ectodomain of the TM subunit was sufficient to confer Vpu-like activity to an inactive Env variant. Surprisingly, however, absence of Vpu-like activity was not correlated with absence of BST-2 interaction. Taken together, our data suggest that maintaining the ability to antagonize BST-2 is of functional relevance not only to HIV-1 but also to HIV-2 as well. Our data show that as with Vpu, binding of HIV-2 Env to BST-2 is important but not sufficient for antagonism. Finally, as observed previously, the Vpu-like activity in HIV-2 Env can be controlled by single-residue changes in the TM subunit. IMPORTANCE: Lentiviruses such as HIV-1 and HIV-2 encode accessory proteins whose function is to overcome host restriction mechanisms. Vpu is a well-studied HIV-1 accessory protein that enhances virus release by antagonizing the host restriction factor BST-2. HIV-2 does not encode a vpu gene. Instead, the HIV-2 Env glycoprotein was found to antagonize BST-2 in some isolates. Here, we cloned multiple Env sequences from 7 HIV-2-infected patients and found that about half were able to antagonize BST-2. Importantly, most HIV-2 patients harbored a mixed population of viruses containing or lacking the ability to antagonize BST-2. In fact, in comparing Env sequences from one patient combined with site-directed mutagenesis, we were able to restore BST-2 antagonism to an inactive Env protein by a single-amino-acid change. Our data suggest that targeting BST-2 by HIV-2 Env is a dynamic process that can be regulated by simple changes in the Env sequence.

The Expression of Functional Vpx during Pathogenic SIVmac Infections of Rhesus Macaques Suppresses SAMHD1 in CD4+ Memory T Cells.

For nearly 20 years, the principal biological function of the HIV-2/SIV Vpx gene has been thought to be required for optimal virus replication in myeloid cells. Mechanistically, this Vpx activity was recently reported to involve the degradation of Sterile Alpha Motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) in this cell lineage. Here we show that when macaques were inoculated with either the T cell tropic SIVmac239 or the macrophage tropic SIVmac316 carrying a Vpx point mutation that abrogates the recruitment of DCAF1 and the ensuing degradation of endogenous SAMHD1 in cultured CD4+ T cells, virus acquisition, progeny virion production in memory CD4+ T cells during acute infection, and the maintenance of set-point viremia were greatly attenuated. Revertant viruses emerging in two animals exhibited an augmented replication phenotype in memory CD4+ T lymphocytes both in vitro and in vivo, which was associated with reduced levels of endogenous SAMHD1. These results indicate that a critical role of Vpx in vivo is to promote the degradation of SAMHD1 in memory CD4+ T lymphocytes, thereby generating high levels of plasma viremia and the induction of immunodeficiency.

Most rhesus macaques infected with the CCR5-tropic SHIV(AD8) generate cross-reactive antibodies that neutralize multiple HIV-1 strains.

The induction of broadly reacting neutralizing antibodies has been a major goal of HIV vaccine research. Characterization of a pathogenic CCR5 (R5)-tropic SIV/HIV chimeric virus (SHIV) molecular clone (SHIV(AD8-EO)) revealed that eight of eight infected animals developed cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) directed against an envelope glycoprotein derived from the heterologous HIV-1(DH12) strain. A panel of plasmas, collected from monkeys inoculated with either molecularly cloned or uncloned SHIV(AD8) stocks, exhibited cross-neutralization against multiple tier 1 and tier 2 HIV-1 clade B isolates. One SHIV(AD8)-infected animal also developed NAbs against clades A and C HIV-1 strains. In this particular infected macaque, the cross-reacting anti-HIV-1 NAbs produced between weeks 7 and 13 were directed against a neutralization-sensitive virus strain, whereas neutralizing activities emerging at weeks 41-51 targeted more neutralization-resistant HIV-1 isolates. These results indicate that the SHIV(AD8) macaque model represents a potentially valuable experimental system for investigating B-cell maturation and the induction of cross-reactive NAbs directed against multiple HIV-1 strains.

Emergence of gp120 V3 variants confers neutralization resistance in an R5 simian-human immunodeficiency virus-infected macaque elite neutralizer that targets the N332 glycan of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein.

Neutralization-resistant simian-human immunodeficiency virus AD8 (SHIVAD8) variants that emerged in an infected macaque elite neutralizer targeting the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gp120 N332 glycan acquired substitutions of critical amino acids in the V3 region rather than losing the N332 glycosylation site. One of these resistant variants, carrying the full complement of gp120 V3 changes, was also resistant to the potent anti-HIV-1 monoclonal neutralizing antibodies PGT121 and 10-1074, both of which are also dependent on the presence of the gp120 N332 glycan.

Rapid development of glycan-specific, broad, and potent anti-HIV-1 gp120 neutralizing antibodies in an R5 SIV/HIV chimeric virus infected macaque.

It is widely believed that the induction of a broadly neutralizing antibody (bNAb) response will be a critical component of a successful vaccine against HIV. A significant fraction of HIV-infected individuals mount bNAb responses, providing support for the notion that such responses could be elicited through vaccination. Infection of macaques with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) or SIV/HIV chimeric virus (SHIV) has been widely used to model aspects of HIV infection, but to date, only limited bNAb responses have been described. Here, we screened plasma from 14 R5-tropic SHIV-infected macaques for broadly neutralizing activity and identified a macaque with highly potent cross-clade plasma NAb response. Longitudinal studies showed that the development of broad and autologous NAb responses occurred coincidentally in this animal. Serum-mapping studies, using pseudovirus point mutants and antigen adsorption assays, indicated that the plasma bNAbs are specific for epitopes that include carbohydrates and are critically dependent on the glycan at position 332 of Env gp120. The results described herein provide insight into the development and evolution of a broad response, suggest that certain bNAb specificities may be more rapidly induced by immunization than others, and provide a potential model for the facile study of the development of bNAb responses.

Induction of durable remission by dual immunotherapy in SHIV-infected ART-suppressed macaques.

The eradication of the viral reservoir represents the major obstacle to the development of a clinical cure for established HIV-1 infection. Here, we demonstrate that the administration of N-803 (brand name Anktiva) and broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) results in sustained viral control after discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in simian-human AD8 (SHIV-AD8)-infected, ART-suppressed rhesus macaques. N-803+bNAbs treatment induced immune activation and transient viremia but only limited reductions in the SHIV reservoir. Upon ART discontinuation, viral rebound occurred in all animals, which was followed by durable control in approximately 70% of all N-803+bNAb-treated macaques. Viral control was correlated with the reprogramming of CD8+ T cells by N-803+bNAb synergy. Thus, complete eradication of the replication-competent viral reservoir is likely not a prerequisite for the induction of sustained remission after discontinuation of ART.

Pathogenicity and mucosal transmissibility of the R5-tropic simian/human immunodeficiency virus SHIV(AD8) in rhesus macaques: implications for use in vaccine studies.

There is an urgent need to develop new pathogenic R5 simian/human immunodeficiency viruses (SHIVs) for the evaluation of candidate anti-HIV vaccines in nonhuman primates. Here, we characterize swarm SHIV(AD8) stocks, prepared from three infected rhesus macaques with documented immunodeficiency at the time of euthanasia, for their capacity to establish durable infections in macaques following inoculation by the intravenous (i.v.) or intrarectal (i.r.) route. All three viral stocks (SHIV(AD8-CE8J), SHIV(AD8-CK15), and SHIV(AD8-CL98)) exhibited robust replication in vivo and caused marked depletion of CD4(+) T cells affecting both memory and naïve CD4(+) T lymphocyte subsets following administration by either route. Eleven of 22 macaques inoculated with the new SHIV(AD8) stocks were euthanized with clinical symptoms of immunodeficiency and evidence of opportunistic infections (Pneumocystis, Candida, and Mycobacterium). A single but unique founder virus, also present in the SHIV(AD8-CE8J) swarm stock, was transmitted to two animals following a single i.r. inoculation of approximately 3 50% animal infectious doses, which is close to the threshold required to establish infection in all exposed animals. Because the three new SHIV(AD8) viruses are mucosally transmissible, exhibited tier 2 sensitivity to anti-HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies, deplete CD4(+) T lymphocytes in vivo, and induce AIDS in macaques, they are eminently suitable as challenge viruses in vaccine experiments.

Gene Editing of Primary Rhesus Macaque B Cells.

B cells and their progeny are the sources of highly expressed antibodies. Their high protein expression capabilities together with their abundance, easy accessibility via peripheral blood, and amenability to simple adoptive transfers have made them an attractive target for gene editing approaches to express recombinant antibodies or other therapeutic proteins. The gene editing of mouse and human primary B cells is efficient, and mouse models for in vivo studies have shown promise, but feasibility and scalability for larger animal models have so far not been demonstrated. We, therefore, developed a protocol to edit rhesus macaque primary B cells in vitro to enable such studies. We report conditions for in vitro culture and gene-editing of primary rhesus macaque B cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells or splenocytes using CRISPR/Cas9. To achieve the targeted integration of large (<4.5 kb) cassettes, a fast and efficient protocol was included for preparing recombinant adeno-associated virus serotype 6 as a homology-directed repair template using a tetracycline-enabled self-silencing adenoviral helper vector. These protocols enable the study of prospective B cell therapeutics in rhesus macaques.

CD4 binding site immunogens elicit heterologous anti-HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies in transgenic and wild-type animals.

Passive transfer of broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 antibodies (bNAbs) protects against infection, and therefore, eliciting bNAbs by vaccination is a major goal of HIV-1 vaccine efforts. bNAbs that target the CD4 binding site (CD4bs) on HIV-1 Env are among the most broadly active, but to date, responses elicited against this epitope in vaccinated animals have lacked potency and breadth. We hypothesized that CD4bs bNAbs resembling the antibody IOMA might be easier to elicit than other CD4bs antibodies that exhibit higher somatic mutation rates, a difficult-to-achieve mechanism to accommodate Env's N276gp120 N-glycan, and rare five-residue light chain complementarity-determining region 3. As an initial test of this idea, we developed IOMA germline-targeting Env immunogens and evaluated a sequential immunization regimen in transgenic mice expressing germline-reverted IOMA. These mice developed CD4bs epitope-specific responses with heterologous neutralization, and cloned antibodies overcame neutralization roadblocks, including accommodating the N276gp120 glycan, with some neutralizing selected HIV-1 strains more potently than IOMA. The immunization regimen also elicited CD4bs-specific responses in mice containing polyclonal antibody repertoires as well as rabbits and rhesus macaques. Thus, germline targeting of IOMA-class antibody precursors represents a potential vaccine strategy to induce CD4bs bNAbs.

Some human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu proteins are able to antagonize macaque BST-2 in vitro and in vivo: Vpu-negative simian-human immunodeficiency viruses are attenuated in vivo.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Vpu enhances the release of viral particles from infected cells by targeting BST-2/tetherin, a cellular protein inhibiting virus release. The widely used HIV-1(NL4-3) Vpu functionally inactivates human BST-2 but not murine or monkey BST-2, leading to the notion that Vpu antagonism is species specific. Here we investigated the properties of the CXCR4-tropic simian-human immunodeficiency virus DH12 (SHIV(DH12)) and the CCR5-tropic SHIV(AD8), each of which carries vpu genes derived from different primary HIV-1 isolates. We found that virion release from infected rhesus peripheral blood mononuclear cells was enhanced to various degrees by the Vpu present in both SHIVs. Transfer of the SHIV(DH12) Vpu transmembrane domain to the HIV-1(NL4-3) Vpu conferred antagonizing activity against macaque BST-2. Inactivation of the SHIV(DH12) and SHIV(AD8) vpu genes impaired virus replication in 6 of 8 inoculated rhesus macaques, resulting in lower plasma viral RNA loads, slower losses of CD4(+) T cells, and delayed disease progression. The expanded host range of the SHIV(DH12) Vpu was not due to adaptation during passage in macaques but was an intrinsic property of the parental HIV-1(DH12) Vpu protein. These results demonstrate that the species-specific inhibition of BST-2 by HIV-1(NL4-3) Vpu is not characteristic of all HIV-1 Vpu proteins; some HIV-1 isolates encode a Vpu with a broader host range.

Recombination-mediated changes in coreceptor usage confer an augmented pathogenic phenotype in a nonhuman primate model of HIV-1-induced AIDS.

Evolution of the env gene in transmitted R5-tropic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains is the most widely accepted mechanism driving coreceptor switching. In some infected individuals, however, a shift in coreceptor utilization can occur as a result of the reemergence of a cotransmitted, but rapidly controlled, X4 virus. The latter possibility was studied by dually infecting rhesus macaques with X4 and R5 chimeric simian simian/human immunodeficiency viruses (SHIVs) and monitoring the replication status of each virus using specific primer pairs. In one of the infected monkeys, both SHIVs were potently suppressed by week 12 postinoculation, but a burst of viremia at week 51 was accompanied by an unrelenting loss of total CD4+ T cells and the development of clinical disease. PCR analyses of plasma viral RNA indicated an env gene segment containing the V3 region from the inoculated X4 SHIV had been transferred into the genetic background of the input R5 SHIV by intergenomic recombination, creating an X4 virus with novel replicative, serological, and pathogenic properties. These results indicate that the effects of retrovirus recombination in vivo can be functionally profound and may even occur when one of the recombination participants is undetectable in the circulation as cell-free virus.

High frequencies of resting CD4+ T cells containing integrated viral DNA are found in rhesus macaques during acute lentivirus infections.

We and others have reported that the vast majority of virus-producing CD4(+) T cells during the acute infection of rhesus macaques with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) or CXCR4 (X4)-using simian/human immunodeficiency viruses (SHIVs) exhibited a nonactivated phenotype. These findings have been extended to show that resting CD4(+) T lymphocytes collected from SIV- or X4-SHIV-infected animals during the first 10 days of infection continue to release virus ex vivo. Furthermore, we observed high frequencies of integrated viral DNA (up to 5.1 x 10(4) DNA copies per 10(5) cells) in circulating resting CD4(+) T cells during the first 10 days of the infection. Integration of SIV DNA was detected only in memory CD4(+) T cells and SHIVs preferentially integrated into resting naïve CD4(+) T cells. Taken together, these results show that during the acute infection large numbers of resting CD4(+) T cells carry integrated nonhuman primate lentiviral DNA and are the major source of progeny virions irrespective of coreceptor usage. Prompt and sustained interventions are therefore required to block the rapid systemic dissemination of virus and prevent an otherwise fatal clinical outcome.