Protective Immunity and New Vaccines for Lyme Disease.

Lyme disease, caused by some Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, is the most common tick-borne illness in the Northern Hemisphere and the number of cases, and geographic spread, continue to grow. Previously identified B. burgdorferi proteins, lipid immunogens, and live mutants lead the design of canonical vaccines aimed at disrupting infection in the host. Discovery of the mechanism of action of the first vaccine catalyzed the development of new strategies to control Lyme disease that bypassed direct vaccination of the human host. Thus, novel prevention concepts center on proteins produced by B. burgdorferi during tick transit and on tick proteins that mediate feeding and pathogen transmission. A burgeoning area of research is tick immunity as it can unlock mechanistic pathways that could be targeted for disruption. Studies that shed light on the mammalian immune pathways engaged during tick-transmitted B. burgdorferi infection would further development of vaccination strategies against Lyme disease.

Blood Smears Have Poor Sensitivity for Confirming Borrelia miyamotoi Disease.

Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) is a newly recognized borreliosis that is cotransmitted by ticks wherever Lyme disease is zoonotic. Unlike Borrelia burgdorferisensu lato, the agent of Lyme disease, B. miyamotoi is closely related to relapsing fever spirochetes, such as Borrelia hermsii Some authors have suggested that the disease caused by B. miyamotoi should be considered a hard-tick-transmitted relapsing fever, and thus, the main mode of confirming a diagnosis for that infection, microscopy to analyze a blood smear, may have clinical utility. To determine whether blood smears may detect B. miyamotoi in the blood of acute BMD patients, we made standard malariological thick smears from anticoagulated blood samples that were previously determined to contain this agent (by PCR) and analyzed them for morphological evidence of spirochetes. Spirochetes were not detected in the blood smears from 20 PCR positive patient blood samples after examination of 100 thick smear fields and only 2 of 20 demonstrated spirochetes when the examination was extended to 300 thick smear fields. Inoculation of severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice yielded isolates from 5 of 5 samples, but 0 of 3 BALB/c mice became infected. We conclude that in strong contrast to the diagnosis of typical relapsing fever, microscopy of blood smears is not sensitive enough for confirming a diagnosis of BMD but that SCID mouse inoculation could be a useful complement to PCR.

Borrelia miyamotoi Disease in the Northeastern United States: A Case Series.

BACKGROUND: The first recognized cases of Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) in North America were reported in the northeastern United States in 2013. OBJECTIVE: To further describe the clinical spectrum and laboratory findings for BMD. DESIGN: Case series. SETTING: Patients presenting to primary care offices, emergency departments, or urgent care clinics in 2013 and 2014. PARTICIPANTS: Acutely febrile patients from the northeastern United States in whom the treating health care providers suspected and ordered testing for tick-transmitted infections. MEASUREMENTS: Whole-blood polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing was performed for the presence of specific DNA sequences of common tickborne infections (including BMD). Serologic testing for B. miyamotoi was performed using a recombinant glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (rGlpQ) protein. Clinical records were analyzed to identify the major features of acute disease. RESULTS: Among 11,515 patients tested, 97 BMD cases were identified by PCR. Most of the 51 case patients on whom clinical histories were reviewed presented with high fever, chills, marked headache, and myalgia or arthralgia. Twenty-four percent were hospitalized. Elevated liver enzyme levels, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia were common. At presentation, 16% of patients with BMD were seropositive for IgG and/or IgM antibody to B. miyamotoi rGlpQ. Most (78%) had seropositive convalescent specimens. Symptoms resolved after treatment with doxycycline, and no chronic sequelae or symptoms were observed. LIMITATION: Findings were based on specimens submitted for testing to a reference laboratory, and medical records of only 51 of the 97 case patients with BMD were reviewed. CONCLUSION: Patients with BMD presented with nonspecific symptoms, including fever, headache, chills, myalgia, and arthralgia. Laboratory confirmation of BMD was possible by PCR on blood from acutely symptomatic patients who were seronegative at presentation. Borrelia miyamotoi disease may be an emerging tickborne infection in the northeastern United States. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: IMUGEN.

Investigational screening for Babesia microti in a large repository of blood donor samples from nonendemic and endemic areas of the United States.

BACKGROUND: Babesia microti, a transfusion-transmissible intraerythrocytic parasite, is increasing in frequency in the United States with no available FDA-licensed donor screening assay. We utilized investigational arrayed fluorescence immunoassay (AFIA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect B. microti antibodies and DNA in blood donors. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: AFIA and real-time PCR were performed on frozen paired EDTA plasma (AFIA) and EDTA whole blood (PCR) samples collected from May to September 2010 to 2011 in nonendemic (Arizona [AZ] and Oklahoma [OK]), moderately endemic (Minnesota [MN] and Wisconsin [WI]), and highly endemic (Connecticut [CT] and Massachusetts [MA]) areas of the United States. AFIA utilized B. microti piroplasm as an antigen substrate; PCR primers and probes targeted the B. microti 18S ribosomal RNA gene. Data from AZ and OK were used to calculate specificity. All AFIA- or PCR-positive or -inconclusive donors were deferred, notified, and invited to participate in a follow-up study involving repeat testing and a demographic and risk-factor questionnaire. Recipient tracing was performed for any cellular component transfused at index, at subsequent donation, or within the prior 12 months. RESULTS: Testing of 13,269 paired samples included 4022 from AZ and OK, 4167 from MN and WI, and 5080 from CT and MA. B. microti antibody and/or DNA prevalences were 0.025% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.00%-0.14%), 0.12% (95% CI, 0.04%-0.28%), and 0.75% (95% CI, 0.53%-1.03%) in the nonendemic, mid-endemic, and high-endemic regions, respectively. Specificities were 99.95% (95% CI, 99.82%-99.99%) at a 1-in-64 AFIA cutoff and 99.98% (95% CI, 99.86%-100.00%) at a 1-in-128 cutoff. CONCLUSIONS: B. microti prevalence followed expected geographical patterns. Screening was feasible with a performance comparable or superior to other infectious disease blood donor screening assays.

Borrelia miyamotoi infection presenting as human granulocytic anaplasmosis: a case report.

BACKGROUND: The diverse tickborne infections of the northeastern United States can present as undifferentiated flu-like illnesses. In areas endemic for Lyme and other tickborne diseases, patients presenting with acute febrile illness with myalgia, headache, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated hepatic aminotransferase levels are presumptively diagnosed as having human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA). OBJECTIVE: To assign a cause for illness experienced by 2 case patients who were initially diagnosed with HGA but did not rapidly defervesce with doxycycline treatment and had no laboratory evidence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection. DESIGN: Case report. SETTING: 2 primary care medical centers in Massachusetts and New Jersey. PATIENTS: 2 case patients acutely presenting with fever. MEASUREMENTS: Identification of the causative agent by polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing. RESULTS: Molecular diagnostic assays detected Borrelia miyamotoi in the peripheral blood of both patients. There was no evidence of infection with other tickborne pathogens commonly diagnosed in the referral areas. LIMITATION: One of the case patients may have had concurrent Lyme disease. CONCLUSION: The presence of B. miyamotoi DNA in the peripheral blood and the patients' eventual therapeutic response to doxycycline are consistent with the hypothesis that their illness was due to this newly recognized spirochete. Samples from tick-exposed patients acutely presenting with signs of HGA but who have a delayed response to doxycycline therapy or negative confirmatory test results for HGA should be analyzed carefully for evidence of B. miyamotoi infection.

Determination of Elemental Composition in Soft Biological Tissue Using Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry: Method Validation.

Determination of elemental concentrations in biological tissue is fundamental to many environmental studies. Analytical methods typically used to quantify concentrations in such studies have minimum sample volumes that necessitate lethal or impactful collection of tissues. Laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) has small sample volume requirements and offers environmental practitioners an opportunity to employ low-impact sample collection methods. Environmental applications of LA-ICP-MS are limited by the lack of validated methods, partly due to the need for dry samples and scarcity of matrix-matched certified reference materials (CRMs). This study validates an LA-ICP-MS method to determine concentrations of 30 elements in soft biological tissue (fish ovary and muscle). Tissue samples (median: 0.48 grams (g); inter-quartile range: 0.30 g to 0.56 g wet weight) were dehydrated, powdered, compressed into pellets (weighing approximately 0.03 g) and analyzed using LA-ICP-MS alongside three matrix-matched CRMs. The method yielded concentration determinations for CRM elements that were typically accurate to within 30% of theoretical concentrations, and precise (relative standard deviation <20%). These results were repeatable: accuracy rarely deviated from theoretical values by more than 20%, and precision rarely exceeded 33%. Determinations for biological samples were replicable irrespective of tissue (ovary or muscle). There was good linearity between analyte signal strength and theoretical concentration (median R2 ≥ 0.981 for all elements) across ranges typically encountered in environmental studies. Concentrations could not be consistently obtained (i.e., determined concentrations were typically below detection limits) for boron, vanadium, molybdenum, and cadmium in muscles, and arsenic in both ovaries and muscles; however, detection limits were sufficiently low for most environmental contexts. Further methodological refinement could include the incorporation of spiked standards to extend linear ranges, and fine-tuning instrument parameters to obtain smoother signal intensities for rare elements. The method presented promotes the use of low-impact sample collection methods while enabling high-quality determinations of elemental concentrations in biological tissues.

The Automatic Substitution of Biosimilars: Definitions of Interchangeability are not Interchangeable.

In the USA, an interchangeability designation provides biosimilar sponsors with a pathway for achieving what is standard for small-molecule generics: pharmacy-level auto-substitution for an innovator. No other major health authority links interchangeability to automatic substitution, as all require the involvement of the prescriber or patient in a medication change. This editorial considers the clinical impact and practicality of auto-substitution. First, interchangeability is linked to non-medical switching (NMS), the practice of switching treatment in patients with stable disease for non-clinical reasons. NMS may generate negative sentiment in those unwilling or reluctant to switch, which can adversely impact treatment outcomes (i.e., nocebo effect). Indeed, in real-world studies of tumor necrosis factor inhibitors, discontinuation rates have been shown to be higher in patients switched to biosimilars for non-medical reasons than in historical cohorts maintained on innovators. Second, interchangeability may impede pharmacovigilance and traceability, as not all jurisdictions require innovators and biosimilars to have distinct biologic names. Third, an interchangeability designation from the US Food and Drug Administration only permits a biosimilar to be automatically substituted for its innovator, not other biosimilars (if available). Pharmacist education would be needed to avoid off-label, automatic substitution among biosimilars of a single innovator. Last, once granted, an interchangeability designation exists in perpetuity under current US federal law. However, the supply chains of innovators and biosimilars are maintained independently, with no requirement for reconfirmation of biosimilarity or interchangeability. We feel that additional guidance is needed for the auto-substitution of biosimilars and innovators to become a reality.

Evolution: vertebrate reproductive strategies get mixed up.

The mangrove killifish is the only vertebrate known to have a mixed-mating strategy, where hermaphrodites reproduce by either self-fertilisation or cross-breeding. New molecular evidence from this species reveals that occasional cross-breeding between common hermaphroditic individuals and rare pure males results in an injection of genetic variation into otherwise highly homozygous 'clonal' lineages.

Zoonotic Babesia microti in the northeastern U.S.: Evidence for the expansion of a specific parasite lineage.

The recent range expansion of human babesiosis in the northeastern United States, once found only in restricted coastal sites, is not well understood. This study sought to utilize a large number of samples to examine the population structure of the parasites on a fine scale to provide insights into the mode of emergence across the region. 228 B. microti samples collected in endemic northeastern U.S. sites were genotyped using published Variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) markers. The genetic diversity and population structure were analysed on a geographic scale using Phyloviz and TESS, programs that utilize two different methods to identify population membership without predefined population data. Three distinct populations were detected in northeastern US, each dominated by a single ancestral type. In contrast to the limited range of the Nantucket and Cape Cod populations, the mainland population dominated from New Jersey eastward to Boston. Ancestral populations of B. microti were sufficiently isolated to differentiate into distinct populations. Despite this, a single population was detected across a large geographic area of the northeast that historically had at least 3 distinct foci of transmission, central New Jersey, Long Island and southeastern Connecticut. We conclude that a single B. microti genotype has expanded across the northeastern U.S. The biological attributes associated with this parasite genotype that have contributed to such a selective sweep remain to be identified.

Sperm competition and sex change: a comparative analysis across fishes.

Current theory to explain the adaptive significance of sex change over gonochorism predicts that female-first sex change could be adaptive when relative reproductive success increases at a faster rate with body size for males than for females. A faster rate of reproductive gain with body size can occur if larger males are more effective in controlling females and excluding competitors from fertilizations. The most simple consequence of this theoretical scenario, based on sexual allocation theory, is that natural breeding sex ratios are expected to be female biased in female-first sex changers, because average male fecundity will exceed that of females. A second prediction is that the intensity of sperm competition is expected to be lower in female-first sex-changing species because larger males should be able to more completely monopolize females and therefore reduce male-male competition during spawning. Relative testis size has been shown to be an indicator of the level of sperm competition, so we use this metric to examine evolutionary responses to selection from postcopulatory male-male competition. We used data from 116 comparable female-first sex-changing and nonhermaphroditic (gonochoristic) fish species to test these two predictions. In addition to cross-species analyses we also controlled for potential phylogenetic nonindependence by analyzing independent contrasts. As expected, breeding sex ratios were significantly more female biased in female-first sex-changing than nonhermaphroditic taxa. In addition, males in female-first sex changers had significantly smaller relative testis sizes that were one-fifth the size of those of nonhermaphroditic species, revealing a new evolutionary correlate of female-first sex change. These results, which are based on data from a wide range of taxa and across the same body-size range for either mode of reproduction, provide direct empirical support for current evolutionary theories regarding the benefits of female-first sex change.

Spatial variation in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) in coastal British Columbia.

Barrow's goldeneyes are sea ducks that winter throughout coastal British Columbia (BC). Their diet consists primarily of intertidal blue mussels, which can accumulate PAHs; accordingly, goldeneyes may be susceptible to exposure through contaminated prey. In 2014/15, we examined total PAH concentrations in mussels from undeveloped and developed coastal areas of BC. At those same sites, we used EROD to measure hepatic CYP1A induction in goldeneyes. We found higher mussel PAH concentrations at developed coastal sites. Regionally, goldeneyes from southern BC, which has relatively higher coastal development, had higher EROD activity compared to birds from northern BC. Our results suggest goldeneyes wintering in coastal BC were exposed to PAHs through diet, with higher exposure among birds wintering in coastal areas with greater anthropogenic influence. These results suggest the mussel-goldeneye system is suitable as a natural, multi-trophic-level indicator of contemporary hydrocarbon contamination occurrence and exposure useful for establishing oil spill recovery endpoints.

Borrelia miyamotoi Disease: Neither Lyme Disease Nor Relapsing Fever.

Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) is a newly recognized borreliosis globally transmitted by ticks of the Ixodes persulcatus species complex. Once considered to be a tick symbiont with no public health implications, B miyamotoi is increasingly recognized as the agent of a nonspecific febrile illness often misdiagnosed as acute Lyme disease without rash, or as ehrlichiosis. The frequency of its diagnosis in the northeastern United States is similar to that of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis. A diagnosis of BMD is confirmed by polymerase chain reaction analysis of acute blood samples, or by seroconversion using a recombinant glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase enzyme immunoassay. BMD is successfully treated with oral doxycycline or amoxicillin.

Recent region-wide declines in Caribbean reef fish abundance.

Profound ecological changes are occurring on coral reefs throughout the tropics, with marked coral cover losses and concomitant algal increases, particularly in the Caribbean region. Historical declines in the abundance of large Caribbean reef fishes likely reflect centuries of overexploitation. However, effects of drastic recent degradation of reef habitats on reef fish assemblages have yet to be established. By using meta-analysis, we analyzed time series of reef fish density obtained from 48 studies that include 318 reefs across the Caribbean and span the time period 1955-2007. Our analyses show that overall reef fish density has been declining significantly for more than a decade, at rates that are consistent across all subregions of the Caribbean basin (2.7% to 6.0% loss per year) and in three of six trophic groups. Changes in fish density over the past half-century are modest relative to concurrent changes in benthic cover on Caribbean reefs. However, the recent significant decline in overall fish abundance and its consistency across several trophic groups and among both fished and nonfished species indicate that Caribbean fishes have begun to respond negatively to habitat degradation.