Rare variant analyses validate known ALS genes in a multi-ethnic population and identifies ANTXR2 as a candidate in PLS.

BACKGROUND: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting over 300,000 people worldwide. It is characterized by the progressive decline of the nervous system that leads to the weakening of muscles which impacts physical function. Approximately, 15% of individuals diagnosed with ALS have a known genetic variant that contributes to their disease. As therapies that slow or prevent symptoms continue to develop, such as antisense oligonucleotides, it is important to discover novel genes that could be targets for treatment. Additionally, as cohorts continue to grow, performing analyses in ALS subtypes, such as primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), becomes possible due to an increase in power. These analyses could highlight novel pathways in disease manifestation. METHODS: Building on our previous discoveries using rare variant association analyses, we conducted rare variant burden testing on a substantially larger multi-ethnic cohort of 6,970 ALS patients, 166 PLS patients, and 22,524 controls. We used intolerant domain percentiles based on sub-region Residual Variation Intolerance Score (subRVIS) that have been described previously in conjunction with gene based collapsing approaches to conduct burden testing to identify genes that associate with ALS and PLS. RESULTS: A gene based collapsing model showed significant associations with SOD1, TARDBP, and TBK1 (OR = 19.18, p = 3.67 × 10-39; OR = 4.73, p = 2 × 10-10; OR = 2.3, p = 7.49 × 10-9, respectively). These genes have been previously associated with ALS. Additionally, a significant novel control enriched gene, ALKBH3 (p = 4.88 × 10-7), was protective for ALS in this model. An intolerant domain-based collapsing model showed a significant improvement in identifying regions in TARDBP that associated with ALS (OR = 10.08, p = 3.62 × 10-16). Our PLS protein truncating variant collapsing analysis demonstrated significant case enrichment in ANTXR2 (p = 8.38 × 10-6). CONCLUSIONS: In a large multi-ethnic cohort of 6,970 ALS patients, collapsing analyses validated known ALS genes and identified a novel potentially protective gene, ALKBH3. A first-ever analysis in 166 patients with PLS found a candidate association with loss-of-function mutations in ANTXR2.

Sporadic hypothalamic hamartoma is a ciliopathy with somatic and bi-allelic contributions.

Hypothalamic hamartoma with gelastic seizures is a well-established cause of drug-resistant epilepsy in early life. The development of novel surgical techniques has permitted the genomic interrogation of hypothalamic hamartoma tissue. This has revealed causative mosaic variants within GLI3, OFD1 and other key regulators of the sonic-hedgehog pathway in a minority of cases. Sonic-hedgehog signalling proteins localize to the cellular organelle primary cilia. We therefore explored the hypothesis that cilia gene variants may underlie hitherto unsolved cases of sporadic hypothalamic hamartoma. We performed high-depth exome sequencing and chromosomal microarray on surgically resected hypothalamic hamartoma tissue and paired leukocyte-derived DNA from 27 patients. We searched for both germline and somatic variants under both dominant and bi-allelic genetic models. In hamartoma-derived DNA of seven patients we identified bi-allelic (one germline, one somatic) variants within one of four cilia genes-DYNC2I1, DYNC2H1, IFT140 or SMO. In eight patients, we identified single somatic variants in the previously established hypothalamic hamartoma disease genes GLI3 or OFD1. Overall, we established a plausible molecular cause for 15/27 (56%) patients. Here, we expand the genetic architecture beyond single variants within dominant disease genes that cause sporadic hypothalamic hamartoma to bi-allelic (one germline/one somatic) variants, implicate three novel cilia genes and reconceptualize the disorder as a ciliopathy.

Assisting the analysis of insertions and deletions using regional allele frequencies.

Accurate estimation of population allele frequency (AF) is crucial for gene discovery and genetic diagnostics. However, determining AF for frameshift-inducing small insertions and deletions (indels) faces challenges due to discrepancies in mapping and variant calling methods. Here, we propose an innovative approach to assess indel AF. We developed CRAFTS-indels (Calculating Regional Allele Frequency Targeting Small indels), an algorithm that combines AF of distinct indels within a given region and provides "regional AF" (rAF). We tested and validated CRAFTS-indels using three independent datasets: gnomAD v2 (n=125,748 samples), an internal dataset (IGM; n=39,367), and the UK BioBank (UKBB; n=469,835). By comparing rAF against standard AF, we identified rare indels with rAF exceeding standard AF (sAF≤10-4 and rAF>10-4) as "rAF-hi" indels. Notably, a high percentage of rare indels were "rAF-hi", with a higher proportion in gnomAD v2 (11-20%) and IGM (11-22%) compared to the UKBB (5-9% depending on the CRAFTS-indels' parameters). Analysis of the overlap of regions based on their rAF with low complexity regions and with ClinVar classification supported the pertinence of rAF. Using the internal dataset, we illustrated the utility of CRAFTS-indel in the analysis of de novo variants and the potential negative impact of rAF-hi indels in gene discovery. In summary, annotation of indels with cohort specific rAF can be used to handle some of the limitations of current annotation pipelines and facilitate detection of novel gene disease associations. CRAFTS-indels offers a user-friendly approach to providing rAF annotation. It can be integrated into public databases such as gnomAD, UKBB and used by ClinVar to revise indel classifications.

Genetic disorders and their association with morbidity and mortality in early preterm small for gestational age infants.

BACKGROUND: Early preterm (<34 weeks of gestation) small for gestational age infants (<10th percentile birth weight for sex and gestational age) experience high rates of morbidity and mortality, the causes of which are poorly understood. Mounting evidence suggests that genetic disorders contribute. Scarce data exist regarding the prevalence of genetic disorders and their contribution to morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine the proportion of genetic disorders in early preterm small for gestational age infants (with and without congenital anomalies) compared to early preterm appropriate for gestational age infants and the association of genetic disorders with morbidity or mortality. STUDY DESIGN: This is a retrospective cohort study of infants delivered at 23 and 0/7 to 33 and 6/7 weeks of gestation from 2000 to 2020 from the Pediatrix Clinical Data Warehouse. Data included diagnosed genetic disorders and congenital anomalies, baseline characteristics, and morbidity or mortality. We excluded cases of death in the delivery room before neonatal intensive care unit admission, multiple gestations, and cases transferred after birth or before death or discharge. RESULTS: We identified 223,431 early preterm infants, including 21,180 small for gestational age. Genetic disorders were present in 441 (2.3%) of small for gestational age infants without congenital anomalies, in 194 (10.8%) of small for gestational age infants with congenital anomalies, and in 304 (4.5%) of small for gestational age infants that experienced morbidity or mortality (with or without congenital anomalies). Trisomies 13, 18, and 21 were the most prevalent genetic disorders in these groups, together accounting for 145 small for gestational age infants without congenital anomalies, 117 small for gestational age infants with congenital anomalies, and 166 small for gestational age infants with morbidity or mortality (with or without congenital anomalies). Less prevalent genetic disorders consisted of other aneuploidy (45, X and 47, XXY), copy number variants (13q14 deletion syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, DiGeorge syndrome), and single gene disorders (cystic fibrosis, Fanconi anemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, hemophilia, hypophosphatasia, sickle cell disease, and thalassemia). Comparatively, genetic disorders were found in 1792 (1.0%) appropriate for gestational age infants without congenital anomalies, in 572 (5.8%) appropriate for gestational age infants with congenital anomalies, and 809 (2.0%) appropriate for gestational age infants that experienced morbidity or mortality (with or without congenital anomalies). Genetic disorders were associated with an adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 2.10 (1.89-2.33) of isolated small for gestational age and 12.84 (11.47-14.35) of small for gestational age accompanied by congenital anomalies. Genetic disorders were associated with an adjusted odds ratio of 2.24 (1.83-2.74) of morbidity or mortality. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that genetic disorders are more prevalent in early preterm small for gestational age infants, particularly those with congenital anomalies. These findings also suggest that genetic disorders are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. These associations were primarily driven by trisomies 13, 18, and 21. Genetic diagnoses in this cohort were made through routine clinical care, principally via karyotype, chromosomal microarray, and single gene testing. These findings support evolving clinical guidelines for genetic testing of small for gestational age infants. Our study is limited due to the lack of prospective, genome-wide testing.

High-impact rare genetic variants in severe schizophrenia.

Extreme phenotype sequencing has led to the identification of high-impact rare genetic variants for many complex disorders but has not been applied to studies of severe schizophrenia. We sequenced 112 individuals with severe, extremely treatment-resistant schizophrenia, 218 individuals with typical schizophrenia, and 4,929 controls. We compared the burden of rare, damaging missense and loss-of-function variants between severe, extremely treatment-resistant schizophrenia, typical schizophrenia, and controls across mutation intolerant genes. Individuals with severe, extremely treatment-resistant schizophrenia had a high burden of rare loss-of-function (odds ratio, 1.91; 95% CI, 1.39 to 2.63; P = 7.8 × 10-5) and damaging missense variants in intolerant genes (odds ratio, 2.90; 95% CI, 2.02 to 4.15; P = 3.2 × 10-9). A total of 48.2% of individuals with severe, extremely treatment-resistant schizophrenia carried at least one rare, damaging missense or loss-of-function variant in intolerant genes compared to 29.8% of typical schizophrenia individuals (odds ratio, 2.18; 95% CI, 1.33 to 3.60; P = 1.6 × 10-3) and 25.4% of controls (odds ratio, 2.74; 95% CI, 1.85 to 4.06; P = 2.9 × 10-7). Restricting to genes previously associated with schizophrenia risk strengthened the enrichment with 8.9% of individuals with severe, extremely treatment-resistant schizophrenia carrying a damaging missense or loss-of-function variant compared to 2.3% of typical schizophrenia (odds ratio, 5.48; 95% CI, 1.52 to 19.74; P = 0.02) and 1.6% of controls (odds ratio, 5.82; 95% CI, 3.00 to 11.28; P = 2.6 × 10-8). These results demonstrate the power of extreme phenotype case selection in psychiatric genetics and an approach to augment schizophrenia gene discovery efforts.

Investigation into the genetics of fetal congenital lymphatic anomalies.

OBJECTIVE: Congenital lymphatic anomalies (LAs) arise due to defects in lymphatic development and often present in utero as pleural effusion, chylothorax, nuchal and soft tissue edema, ascites, or hydrops. Many LAs are caused by single nucleotide variants, which are not detected on routine prenatal testing. METHODS: Demographic data were compared between two subcohorts, those with clinically significant fetal edema (CSFE) and isolated fetal edema. A targeted variant analysis of LA genes was performed using American College of Medical Genetics criteria on whole exome sequencing (WES) data generated for 71 fetal edema cases who remained undiagnosed after standard workup. RESULTS: CSFE cases had poor outcomes, including preterm delivery, demise, and maternal preeclampsia. Pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants were identified in 7% (5/71) of cases, including variants in RASopathy genes, RASA1, SOS1, PTPN11, and a novel PIEZO1 variant. Variants of uncertain significance (VOUS) were identified in 45% (32/71) of cases. In CSFEs, VOUS were found in CELSR1, EPHB4, TIE1, PIEZO1, ITGA9, RASopathy genes, SOS1, SOS2, and RAF1. CONCLUSIONS: WES identified pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants and VOUS in LA genes in 51% of fetal edema cases, supporting WES and expanded hydrops panels in cases of idiopathic fetal hydrops and fluid collections.

Association of ultra-rare coding variants with genetic generalized epilepsy: A case-control whole exome sequencing study.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to identify genes associated with genetic generalized epilepsy (GGE) by combining large cohorts enriched with individuals with a positive family history. Secondarily, we set out to compare the association of genes independently with familial and sporadic GGE. METHODS: We performed a case-control whole exome sequencing study in unrelated individuals of European descent diagnosed with GGE (previously recruited and sequenced through multiple international collaborations) and ancestry-matched controls. The association of ultra-rare variants (URVs; in 18 834 protein-coding genes) with epilepsy was examined in 1928 individuals with GGE (vs. 8578 controls), then separately in 945 individuals with familial GGE (vs. 8626 controls), and finally in 1005 individuals with sporadic GGE (vs. 8621 controls). We additionally examined the association of URVs with familial and sporadic GGE in two gene sets important for inhibitory signaling (19 genes encoding γ-aminobutyric acid type A [GABAA ] receptors, 113 genes representing the GABAergic pathway). RESULTS: GABRG2 was associated with GGE (p = 1.8 × 10-5 ), approaching study-wide significance in familial GGE (p = 3.0 × 10-6 ), whereas no gene approached a significant association with sporadic GGE. Deleterious URVs in the most intolerant subgenic regions in genes encoding GABAA receptors were associated with familial GGE (odds ratio [OR] = 3.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.9-7.8, false discovery rate [FDR]-adjusted p = .0024), whereas their association with sporadic GGE had marginally lower odds (OR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.3-6.7, FDR-adjusted p = .022). URVs in GABAergic pathway genes were associated with familial GGE (OR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.3-2.5, FDR-adjusted p = .0024) but not with sporadic GGE (OR = 1.3, 95% CI = .9-1.9, FDR-adjusted p = .19). SIGNIFICANCE: URVs in GABRG2 are likely an important risk factor for familial GGE. The association of gene sets of GABAergic signaling with familial GGE is more prominent than with sporadic GGE.

Seizures and Sleep in the Thalamus: Focal Limbic Seizures Show Divergent Activity Patterns in Different Thalamic Nuclei.

The thalamus plays diverse roles in cortical-subcortical brain activity patterns. Recent work suggests that focal temporal lobe seizures depress subcortical arousal systems and convert cortical activity into a pattern resembling slow-wave sleep. The potential simultaneous and paradoxical role of the thalamus in both limbic seizure propagation, and in sleep-like cortical rhythms has not been investigated. We recorded neuronal activity from the central lateral (CL), anterior (ANT), and ventral posteromedial (VPM) nuclei of the thalamus in an established female rat model of focal limbic seizures. We found that population firing of neurons in CL decreased during seizures while the cortex exhibited slow waves. In contrast, ANT showed a trend toward increased neuronal firing compatible with polyspike seizure discharges seen in the hippocampus. Meanwhile, VPM exhibited a remarkable increase in sleep spindles during focal seizures. Single-unit juxtacellular recordings from CL demonstrated reduced overall firing rates, but a switch in firing pattern from single spikes to burst firing during seizures. These findings suggest that different thalamic nuclei play very different roles in focal limbic seizures. While limbic nuclei, such as ANT, appear to participate directly in seizure propagation, arousal nuclei, such as CL, may contribute to depressed cortical function, whereas sleep spindles in relay nuclei, such as VPM, may interrupt thalamocortical information flow. These combined effects could be critical for controlling both seizure severity and impairment of consciousness. Further understanding of differential effects of seizures on different thalamocortical networks may lead to improved treatments directly targeting these modes of impaired function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Temporal lobe epilepsy has a major negative impact on quality of life. Previous work suggests that the thalamus plays a critical role in thalamocortical network modulation and subcortical arousal maintenance, but its precise seizure-associated functions are not known. We recorded neuronal activity in three different thalamic regions and found divergent activity patterns, which may respectively participate in seizure propagation, impaired level of conscious arousal, and altered relay of information to the cortex during focal limbic seizures. These very different activity patterns within the thalamus may help explain why focal temporal lobe seizures often disrupt widespread network function, and can help guide future treatments aimed at restoring normal thalamocortical network activity and cognition.

Impaired Serotonergic Brainstem Function during and after Seizures.

Impaired breathing, cardiac function, and arousal during and after seizures are important causes of morbidity and mortality. Previous work suggests that these changes are associated with depressed brainstem function in the ictal and post-ictal periods. Lower brainstem serotonergic systems are postulated to play an important role in cardiorespiratory changes during and after seizures, whereas upper brainstem serotonergic and other systems regulate arousal. However, direct demonstration of seizure-associated neuronal activity changes in brainstem serotonergic regions has been lacking. Here, we performed multiunit and single-unit recordings from medullary raphe and midbrain dorsal raphe nuclei in an established rat seizure model while measuring changes in breathing rate and depth as well as heart rate. Serotonergic neurons were identified by immunohistochemistry. Respiratory rate, tidal volume, and minute ventilation were all significantly decreased during and after seizures in this model. We found that population firing of neurons in the medullary and midbrain raphe on multiunit recordings was significantly decreased during the ictal and post-ictal periods. Single-unit recordings from identified serotonergic neurons in the medullary raphe revealed highly consistently decreased firing during and after seizures. In contrast, firing of midbrain raphe serotonergic neurons was more variable, with a mixture of increases and decreases. The markedly suppressed firing of medullary serotonergic neurons supports their possible role in simultaneously impaired cardiorespiratory function in seizures. Decreased arousal likely arises from depressed population activity of several neuronal pools in the upper brainstem and forebrain. These findings have important implications for preventing morbidity and mortality in people living with epilepsy. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Seizures often cause impaired breathing, cardiac dysfunction, and loss of consciousness. The brainstem and, specifically, brainstem serotonin neurons are thought to play an important role in controlling breathing, cardiac function, and arousal. We used an established rat seizure model to study the overall neuronal activity in the brainstem as well as firing of specific serotonin neurons while measuring cardiorespiratory function. Our results demonstrated overall decreases in brainstem neuronal activity and marked downregulation of lower brainstem serotonin neuronal firing in association with decreased breathing and heart rate during and after seizures. These findings point the way toward new treatments to augment brainstem function and serotonin, aiming to prevent seizure complications and reduce morbidity and mortality in people living with epilepsy.

Rhythmic 3-4Hz discharge is insufficient to produce cortical BOLD fMRI decreases in generalized seizures.

Absence seizures are transient episodes of impaired consciousness accompanied by 3-4 Hz spike-wave discharge on electroencephalography (EEG). Human functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have demonstrated widespread cortical decreases in the blood oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal that may play an important role in the pathophysiology of these seizures. Animal models could provide an opportunity to investigate the fundamental mechanisms of these changes, however they have so far failed to consistently replicate the cortical fMRI decreases observed in human patients. This may be due to important differences between human seizures and animal models, including a lack of cortical development in rodents or differences in the frequencies of rodent (7-8 Hz) and human (3-4 Hz) spike-wave discharges. To examine the possible contributions of these differences, we developed a ferret model that exhibits 3-4 Hz spike-wave seizures in the presence of a sulcated cortex. Measurements of BOLD fMRI and simultaneous EEG demonstrated cortical fMRI increases during and following spike-wave seizures in ferrets. However unlike human patients, significant fMRI decreases were not observed. The lack of fMRI decreases was consistent across seizures of different durations, discharge frequencies, and anesthetic regimes, and using fMRI analysis models similar to human patients. In contrast, generalized tonic-clonic seizures under the same conditions elicited sustained postictal fMRI decreases, verifying that the lack of fMRI decreases with spike-wave was not due to technical factors. These findings demonstrate that 3-4 Hz spike-wave discharge in a sulcated animal model does not necessarily produce fMRI decreases, leaving the mechanism for this phenomenon open for further investigation.

Thalamic stimulation to improve level of consciousness after seizures: evaluation of electrophysiology and behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Understanding the neural mechanisms that support human consciousness is an important frontier in neuroscience and medicine. We previously developed a rodent model of temporal lobe seizures that recapitulates the human electroencephalography (EEG) signature of ictal and postictal neocortical slow waves associated with behavioral impairments in level of consciousness. The mechanism of slow-wave production in epilepsy may involve suppression of the subcortical arousal systems including the brainstem and intralaminar thalamic nuclei. We hypothesized that intralaminar thalamic stimulation may lead to electrophysiologic and functional rescue from postictal slow waves and behavioral arrest. METHODS: We electrically stimulated the central lateral thalamic nucleus (a member of the intralaminar nuclei) under anesthesia and after electrically induced hippocampal seizures in anesthetized and in awake-behaving animal model preparations. RESULTS: We demonstrated a proof-of-principle restoration of electrophysiologic and behavioral measures of consciousness by stimulating the intralaminar thalamic nuclei after seizures. We measured decreased cortical slow waves and increased desynchronization and multiunit activity in the cortex with thalamic stimulation following seizures. Functionally, thalamic stimulation produced resumption of exploratory behaviors in the postictal state. SIGNIFICANCE: Targeting of nodes in the neural circuitry of consciousness has important medical implications. Impaired consciousness with epilepsy has dangerous consequences including decreased school/work performance, social stigmatization, and impaired airway protection. These data suggest a novel therapeutic approach for restoring consciousness after seizures. If paired with responsive neurostimulation, this may allow rapid implementation to improve level of consciousness in patients with epilepsy.

Optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic brainstem neurons during focal limbic seizures: Effects on cortical physiology.

Focal temporal lobe seizures often cause impaired cortical function and loss of consciousness. Recent work suggests that the mechanism for depressed cortical function during focal seizures may depend on decreased subcortical cholinergic arousal, which leads to a sleep-like state of cortical slow-wave activity. To test this hypothesis, we sought to directly activate subcortical cholinergic neurons during focal limbic seizures to determine the effects on cortical function. Here we used an optogenetic approach to selectively stimulate cholinergic brainstem neurons in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus during focal limbic seizures induced in a lightly anesthetized rat model. We found an increase in cortical gamma activity and a decrease in delta activity in response to cholinergic stimulation. These findings support the mechanistic role of reduced subcortical cholinergic arousal in causing cortical dysfunction during seizures. Through further work, electrical or optogenetic stimulation of subcortical arousal networks may ultimately lead to new treatments aimed at preventing cortical dysfunction during seizures.

Engraftment of wild-type alveolar type II epithelial cells in surfactant protein C deficient mice.

Childhood interstitial lung disease (chILD) secondary to pulmonary surfactant deficiency is a devastating chronic lung disease in children. Clinical presentation includes mild to severe respiratory failure and fibrosis. There is no specific treatment, except lung transplantation, which is hampered by a severe shortage of donor organs, especially for young patients. Repair of lungs with chILD represents a longstanding therapeutic challenge but cell therapy is a promising strategy. As surfactant is produced by alveolar type II epithelial (ATII) cells, engraftment with normal or gene-corrected ATII cells might provide an avenue to cure. Here we used a chILD disease-like model, Sftpc -/- mice, to provide proof-of-principle for this approach. Sftpc -/- mice developed chronic interstitial lung disease with age and were hypersensitive to bleomycin. We could engraft wild-type ATII cells after low dose bleomycin conditioning. Transplanted ATII cells produced mature SPC and attenuated bleomycin-induced lung injury up to two months post-transplant. This study demonstrates that partial replacement of mutant ATII cells can promote lung repair in a mouse model of chILD-like disease.

Increased resting functional connectivity in spike-wave epilepsy in WAG/Rij rats.

PURPOSE: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)-based resting functional connectivity is well suited for measuring slow correlated activity throughout brain networks. Epilepsy involves chronic changes in normal brain networks, and recent work demonstrated enhanced resting fMRI connectivity between the hemispheres in childhood absence epilepsy. An animal model of this phenomenon would be valuable for investigating fundamental mechanisms and testing therapeutic interventions. METHODS: We used fMRI-based resting functional connectivity for studying brain networks involved in absence epilepsy. Wistar Albino Glaxo rats from Rijswijk (WAG/Rij) exhibit spontaneous episodes of staring and unresponsiveness accompanied by spike-wave discharges (SWDs) resembling human absence seizures in behavior and electroencephalography (EEG). Simultaneous EEG-fMRI data in epileptic WAG/Rij rats in comparison to nonepileptic Wistar controls were acquired at 9.4 T. Regions showing cortical fMRI increases during SWDs were used to define reference regions for connectivity analysis to investigate whether chronic seizure activity is associated with changes in network resting functional connectivity. KEY FINDINGS: We observed high degrees of cortical-cortical correlations in all WAG/Rij rats at rest (when no SWDs were present), but not in nonepileptic controls. Strongest connectivity was seen between regions most intensely involved in seizures, mainly in the bilateral somatosensory and adjacent cortices. Group statistics revealed that resting interhemispheric cortical-cortical correlations were significantly higher in WAG/Rij rats compared to nonepileptic controls. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings suggest that activity-dependent plasticity may lead to long-term changes in epileptic networks even at rest. The results show a marked difference between the epileptic and nonepileptic animals in cortical-cortical connectivity, indicating that this may be a useful interictal biomarker associated with the epileptic state.

The Contribution of Commonly Diagnosed Genetic Disorders to Small for Gestational Age Birth and Subsequent Morbidity and Mortality in Preterm Infants.

Objective: Preterm infants born small, vs. appropriate for gestational age (SGA, AGA) are at greater risk for morbidity and mortality. The contribution of genetic disorders to preterm SGA birth, morbidity, and mortality is unknown. We sought to determine the association between genetic disorders and preterm SGA birth, and the association between genetic disorders and morbidity or mortality within preterm SGA infants. We hypothesized that genetic disorders were significantly associated with both. Study Design: This was a retrospective multicenter cohort study of 409 339 infants, born 23-33 weeks' gestation between 2000 and 2020. The odds of preterm SGA (vs AGA) birth, and the odds of severe morbidity or mortality within SGA preterm infants were determined for infants with genetic disorders, after adjusting for known risk factors. Results: Genetic disorders were present in 3.0 and 1.3% of SGA and AGA preterm infants respectively; genetic disorders conferred an aOR (95% CI) of 2.06 (1.92, 2.21) of SGA birth. Genetic disorders were present in 4.3 of preterm SGA infants with morbidity or mortality and 2.1% of preterm SGA infants that did not experience morbidity or mortality. Genetic disorders conferred an aOR (95% CI) of 2.12 (2.66, 3.08) of morbidity or mortality. Conclusions: Genetic disorders are strongly associated with preterm SGA birth, morbidity, and mortality. Clinicians should consider genetic testing of preterm SGA infants, particularly in the setting of other comorbidities or anomalies. Prospective, genomic research is needed to clarify the contribution of genetic disorders to disease in this population.

Rare variant analyses validate known ALS genes in a multi-ethnic population and identifies ANTXR2 as a candidate in PLS.

Background: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting over 30,000 people in the United States. It is characterized by the progressive decline of the nervous system that leads to the weakening of muscles which impacts physical function. Approximately, 15% of individuals diagnosed with ALS have a known genetic variant that contributes to their disease. As therapies that slow or prevent symptoms, such as antisense oligonucleotides, continue to develop, it is important to discover novel genes that could be targets for treatment. Additionally, as cohorts continue to grow, performing analyses in ALS subtypes, such as primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), becomes possible due to an increase in power. These analyses could highlight novel pathways in disease manifestation. Methods: Building on our previous discoveries using rare variant association analyses, we conducted rare variant burden testing on a substantially larger cohort of 6,970 ALS patients from a large multi-ethnic cohort as well as 166 PLS patients, and 22,524 controls. We used intolerant domain percentiles based on sub-region Residual Variation Intolerance Score (subRVIS) that have been described previously in conjunction with gene based collapsing approaches to conduct burden testing to identify genes that associate with ALS and PLS. Results: A gene based collapsing model showed significant associations with SOD1, TARDBP, and TBK1 (OR=19.18, p = 3.67 × 10-39; OR=4.73, p = 2 × 10-10; OR=2.3, p = 7.49 × 10-9, respectively). These genes have been previously associated with ALS. Additionally, a significant novel control enriched gene, ALKBH3 (p = 4.88 × 10-7), was protective for ALS in this model. An intolerant domain based collapsing model showed a significant improvement in identifying regions in TARDBP that associated with ALS (OR=10.08, p = 3.62 × 10-16). Our PLS protein truncating variant collapsing analysis demonstrated significant case enrichment in ANTXR2 (p=8.38 × 10-6). Conclusions: In a large multi-ethnic cohort of 6,970 ALS patients, rare variant burden testing validated known ALS genes and identified a novel potentially protective gene, ALKBH3. A first-ever analysis in 166 patients with PLS found a candidate association with loss-of-function mutations in ANTXR2.

Genetic insights into childhood-onset schizophrenia: The yield of clinical exome sequencing.

Childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS) is a rare form of schizophrenia with an onset prior to 13 years of age. Although genetic factors play a role in COS etiology, only a few causal variants have been reported to date. This study presents a diagnostic exome sequencing (ES) in 37 Israeli Jewish families with a proband diagnosed with COS. By implementing a trio/duo ES approach and applying a well-established diagnostic pipeline, we detected clinically significant variants in 7 probands (19 %). These single nucleotide variants and indels were mostly inherited. The implicated genes were ANKRD11, GRIA2, CHD2, CLCN3, CLTC, IGF1R and MICU1. In a secondary analysis that compared COS patients to 4721 healthy controls, we observed that patients had a significant enrichment of rare loss of function (LoF) variants in LoF intolerant genes associated with developmental diseases. Taken together, ES could be considered as a valuable tool in the genetic workup for COS patients.

Rare variant analyses validate known ALS genes in a multi-ethnic population and identifies ANTXR2 as a candidate in PLS.

Background: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting over 30,000 people in the United States. It is characterized by the progressive decline of the nervous system that leads to the weakening of muscles which impacts physical function. Approximately, 15% of individuals diagnosed with ALS have a known genetic variant that contributes to their disease. As therapies that slow or prevent symptoms, such as antisense oligonucleotides, continue to develop, it is important to discover novel genes that could be targets for treatment. Additionally, as cohorts continue to grow, performing analyses in ALS subtypes, such as primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), becomes possible due to an increase in power. These analyses could highlight novel pathways in disease manifestation. Methods: Building on our previous discoveries using rare variant association analyses, we conducted rare variant burden testing on a substantially larger cohort of 6,970 ALS patients from a large multi-ethnic cohort as well as 166 PLS patients, and 22,524 controls. We used intolerant domain percentiles based on sub-region Residual Variation Intolerance Score (subRVIS) that have been described previously in conjunction with gene based collapsing approaches to conduct burden testing to identify genes that associate with ALS and PLS. Results: A gene based collapsing model showed significant associations with SOD1, TARDBP, and TBK1 (OR=19.18, p = 3.67 × 10-39; OR=4.73, p = 2 × 10-10; OR=2.3, p = 7.49 × 10-9, respectively). These genes have been previously associated with ALS. Additionally, a significant novel control enriched gene, ALKBH3 (p = 4.88 × 10-7), was protective for ALS in this model. An intolerant domain based collapsing model showed a significant improvement in identifying regions in TARDBP that associated with ALS (OR=10.08, p = 3.62 × 10-16). Our PLS protein truncating variant collapsing analysis demonstrated significant case enrichment in ANTXR2 (p=8.38 × 10-6). Conclusions: In a large multi-ethnic cohort of 6,970 ALS patients, rare variant burden testing validated known ALS genes and identified a novel potentially protective gene, ALKBH3. A first-ever analysis in 166 patients with PLS found a candidate association with loss-of-function mutations in ANTXR2.

Where fMRI and electrophysiology agree to disagree: corticothalamic and striatal activity patterns in the WAG/Rij rat.

The relationship between neuronal activity and hemodynamic changes plays a central role in functional neuroimaging. Under normal conditions and in neurological disorders such as epilepsy, it is commonly assumed that increased functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals reflect increased neuronal activity and that fMRI decreases represent neuronal activity decreases. Recent work suggests that these assumptions usually hold true in the cerebral cortex. However, less is known about the basis of fMRI signals from subcortical structures such as the thalamus and basal ganglia. We used WAG/Rij rats (Wistar albino Glaxo rats of Rijswijk), an established animal model of human absence epilepsy, to perform fMRI studies with blood oxygen level-dependent and cerebral blood volume (CBV) contrasts at 9.4 tesla, as well as laser Doppler cerebral blood flow (CBF), local field potential (LFP), and multiunit activity (MUA) recordings. We found that, during spike-wave discharges, the somatosensory cortex and thalamus showed increased fMRI, CBV, CBF, LFP, and MUA signals. However, the caudate-putamen showed fMRI, CBV, and CBF decreases despite increases in LFP and MUA signals. Similarly, during normal whisker stimulation, the cortex and thalamus showed increases in CBF and MUA, whereas the caudate-putamen showed decreased CBF with increased MUA. These findings suggest that neuroimaging-related signals and electrophysiology tend to agree in the cortex and thalamus but disagree in the caudate-putamen. These opposite changes in vascular and electrical activity indicate that caution should be applied when interpreting fMRI signals in both health and disease from the caudate-putamen, as well as possibly from other subcortical structures.