A Red Carpet for Iron Metabolism.

200 billion red blood cells (RBCs) are produced every day, requiring more than 2 × 1015 iron atoms every second to maintain adequate erythropoiesis. These numbers translate into 20 mL of blood being produced each day, containing 6 g of hemoglobin and 20 mg of iron. These impressive numbers illustrate why the making and breaking of RBCs is at the heart of iron physiology, providing an ideal context to discuss recent progress in understanding the systemic and cellular mechanisms that underlie the regulation of iron homeostasis and its disorders.

Two to tango: regulation of Mammalian iron metabolism.

Disruptions in iron homeostasis from both iron deficiency and overload account for some of the most common human diseases. Iron metabolism is balanced by two regulatory systems, one that functions systemically and relies on the hormone hepcidin and the iron exporter ferroportin, and another that predominantly controls cellular iron metabolism through iron-regulatory proteins that bind iron-responsive elements in regulated messenger RNAs. We describe how the two distinct systems function and how they "tango" together in a coordinated manner. We also highlight some of the current questions in mammalian iron metabolism and discuss therapeutic opportunities arising from a better understanding of the underlying biological principles.

Dynamic YAP expression in the non-parenchymal liver cell compartment controls heterologous cell communication.

INTRODUCTION: The Hippo pathway and its transcriptional effectors yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) are targets for cancer therapy. It is important to determine if the activation of one factor compensates for the inhibition of the other. Moreover, it is unknown if YAP/TAZ-directed perturbation affects cell-cell communication of non-malignant liver cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To investigate liver-specific phenotypes caused by YAP and TAZ inactivation, we generated mice with hepatocyte (HC) and biliary epithelial cell (BEC)-specific deletions for both factors (YAPKO, TAZKO and double knock-out (DKO)). Immunohistochemistry, single-cell sequencing, and proteomics were used to analyze liver tissues and serum. RESULTS: The loss of BECs, liver fibrosis, and necrosis characterized livers from YAPKO and DKO mice. This phenotype was weakened in DKO tissues compared to specimens from YAPKO animals. After depletion of YAP in HCs and BECs, YAP expression was induced in non-parenchymal cells (NPCs) in a cholestasis-independent manner. YAP positivity was detected in subgroups of Kupffer cells (KCs) and endothelial cells (ECs). The secretion of pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines such as C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 11 (CXCL11), fms-related receptor tyrosine kinase 3 ligand (FLT3L), and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM1) was increased in the serum of YAPKO animals. YAP activation in NPCs could contribute to inflammation via TEA domain transcription factor (TEAD)-dependent transcriptional regulation of secreted factors. CONCLUSION: YAP inactivation in HCs and BECs causes liver damage, and concomitant TAZ deletion does not enhance but reduces this phenotype. Additionally, we present a new mechanism by which YAP contributes to cell-cell communication originating from NPCs.

The role of iron in chronic inflammatory diseases: from mechanisms to treatment options in anemia of inflammation.

Anemia of inflammation (AI) is a highly prevalent comorbidity in patients affected by chronic inflammatory disorders, such as chronic kidney disease, inflammatory bowel disease, or cancer, that negatively affect disease outcome and quality of life. The pathophysiology of AI is multifactorial, with inflammatory hypoferremia and iron-restricted erythropoiesis playing a major role in the context of disease-specific factors. Here, we review the recent progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms contributing to iron dysregulation in AI, the impact of hypoferremia and anemia on the course of the underlying disease, and (novel) therapeutic strategies applied to treat AI.

Hemochromatosis classification: update and recommendations by the BIOIRON Society.

Hemochromatosis (HC) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder in which uncontrolled intestinal iron absorption may lead to progressive iron overload (IO) responsible for disabling and life-threatening complications such as arthritis, diabetes, heart failure, hepatic cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The recent advances in the knowledge of pathophysiology and molecular basis of iron metabolism have highlighted that HC is caused by mutations in at least 5 genes, resulting in insufficient hepcidin production or, rarely, resistance to hepcidin action. This has led to an HC classification based on different molecular subtypes, mainly reflecting successive gene discovery. This scheme was difficult to adopt in clinical practice and therefore needs revision. Here we present recommendations for unambiguous HC classification developed by a working group of the International Society for the Study of Iron in Biology and Medicine (BIOIRON Society), including both clinicians and basic scientists during a meeting in Heidelberg, Germany. We propose to deemphasize the use of the molecular subtype criteria in favor of a classification addressing both clinical issues and molecular complexity. Ferroportin disease (former type 4a) has been excluded because of its distinct phenotype. The novel classification aims to be of practical help whenever a detailed molecular characterization of HC is not readily available.

Iron homeostasis in mice: does liver lobe matter?

The liver plays a crucial role in maintaining systemic iron homeostasis through iron storage, sensing of systemic iron needs, and production of the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin. While mice are commonly used as models for studying human iron homeostasis, their liver structure differs significantly from humans. Since the mouse liver is structured in six separated lobes, often, the analysis of a single defined lobe is preferred due to concerns over data reproducibility between experimental cohorts. In this study, we compared iron-related parameters in distinct liver lobes of C57BL/6 wild-type mice across different ages. We found that the non-heme iron levels, as well as the mRNA and protein expression of iron storage protein Ferritin and the iron importer Transferrin Receptor 1, were similar between liver lobes. Additionally, the mRNA expression of Hepcidin, as well as its regulators, Bmp2 and Bmp6, and iron importers Zip8 and Zip14 were comparable. Minor differences were observed in Ferroportin mRNA levels of 24-wk-old mice; however, this did not correlate with altered iron content. The findings in wild-type mice were reproduced in Hfe knock-out mice - a well-established genetic model of the most prevalent form of hemochromatosis. Overall, our results indicate that C57BL/6 mouse liver lobes can be used interchangeably for assessing iron content and expression of iron-related genes. Understanding if these findings are applicable to other mouse developmental stages, strains, or models of (iron-related) disorders will be key to promote reduction of experimental animal numbers and facilitate resource sharing among research groups studying liver iron homeostasis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study reveals that, despite being structurally separated, liver lobes from C57BL/6 wild-type and iron-overloaded mice can be used interchangeably for the evaluation of iron content and expression of iron-related genes.

Myeloid-specific fatty acid transport protein 4 deficiency induces a sex-dimorphic susceptibility for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in mice fed a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet.

Newborns with FATP4 mutations exhibit ichthyosis prematurity syndrome (IPS), and adult patients show skin hyperkeratosis, allergies, and eosinophilia. We have previously shown that the polarization of macrophages is altered by FATP4 deficiency; however, the role of myeloid FATP4 in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is not known. We herein phenotyped myeloid-specific Fatp4-deficient (Fatp4M-/-) mice under chow and high-fat, high-cholesterol (HFHC) diet. Bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from Fatp4M-/- mice showed significant reduction in cellular sphingolipids in males and females, and additionally phospholipids in females. BMDMs and Kupffer cells from Fatp4M-/- mice exhibited increased LPS-dependent activation of proinflammatory cytokines and transcription factors PPARγ, CEBPα, and p-FoxO1. Correspondingly, these mutants under chow diet displayed thrombocytopenia, splenomegaly, and elevated liver enzymes. After HFHC feeding, Fatp4M-/- mice showed increased MCP-1 expression in livers and subcutaneous fat. Plasma MCP-1, IL4, and IL13 levels were elevated in male and female mutants, and female mutants additionally showed elevation of IL5 and IL6. After HFHC feeding, male mutants showed an increase in hepatic steatosis and inflammation, whereas female mutants showed a greater severity in hepatic fibrosis associated with immune cell infiltration. Thus, myeloid-FATP4 deficiency led to steatotic and inflammatory NASH in males and females, respectively. Our work offers some implications for patients with FATP4 mutations and also highlights considerations in the design of sex-targeted therapies for NASH treatment.NEW & NOTEWORTHY FATP4 deficiency in BMDMs and Kupffer cells led to increased proinflammatory response. Fatp4M-/- mice displayed thrombocytopenia, splenomegaly, and elevated liver enzymes. In response to HFHC feeding, male mutants were prone to hepatic steatosis, whereas female mutants showed exaggerated fibrosis. Our study provides insights into a sex-dimorphic susceptibility to NASH by myeloid-FATP4 deficiency.

FKBP12 inhibits hepcidin expression by modulating BMP receptors interaction and ligand responsiveness in hepatocytes.

The expression of the iron regulatory hormone hepcidin in hepatocytes is regulated by the BMP-SMAD pathway through the type I receptors ALK2 and ALK3, the type II receptors ACVR2A and BMPR2, and the ligands BMP2 and BMP6. We previously identified the immunophilin FKBP12 as a new hepcidin inhibitor that acts by blocking ALK2. Both the physiologic ALK2 ligand BMP6 and the immunosuppressive drug Tacrolimus (TAC) displace FKBP12 from ALK2 and activate the signaling. However, the molecular mechanism whereby FKBP12 regulates BMP-SMAD pathway activity and thus hepcidin expression remains unclear. Here, we show that FKBP12 acts by modulating BMP receptor interactions and ligand responsiveness. We first demonstrate that in primary murine hepatocytes TAC regulates hepcidin expression exclusively via FKBP12. Downregulation of the BMP receptors reveals that ALK2, to a lesser extent ALK3, and ACVR2A are required for hepcidin upregulation in response to both BMP6 and TAC. Mechanistically, TAC and BMP6 increase ALK2 homo-oligomerization and ALK2-ALK3 hetero-oligomerization and the interaction between ALK2 and the type II receptors. By acting on the same receptors, TAC and BMP6 cooperate in BMP pathway activation and hepcidin expression both in vitro and in vivo. Interestingly, the activation state of ALK3 modulates its interaction with FKBP12, which may explain the cell-specific activity of FKBP12. Overall, our results identify the mechanism whereby FKBP12 regulates the BMP-SMAD pathway and hepcidin expression in hepatocytes, and suggest that FKBP12-ALK2 interaction is a potential pharmacologic target in disorders caused by defective BMP-SMAD signaling and characterized by low hepcidin and high BMP6 expression.

Iron deficiency.

Iron deficiency is one of the leading contributors to the global burden of disease, and particularly affects children, premenopausal women, and people in low-income and middle-income countries. Anaemia is one of many consequences of iron deficiency, and clinical and functional impairments can occur in the absence of anaemia. Iron deprivation from erythroblasts and other tissues occurs when total body stores of iron are low or when inflammation causes withholding of iron from the plasma, particularly through the action of hepcidin, the main regulator of systemic iron homoeostasis. Oral iron therapy is the first line of treatment in most cases. Hepcidin upregulation by oral iron supplementation limits the absorption efficiency of high-dose oral iron supplementation, and of oral iron during inflammation. Modern parenteral iron formulations have substantially altered iron treatment and enable rapid, safe total-dose iron replacement. An underlying cause should be sought in all patients presenting with iron deficiency: screening for coeliac disease should be considered routinely, and endoscopic investigation to exclude bleeding gastrointestinal lesions is warranted in men and postmenopausal women presenting with iron deficiency anaemia. Iron supplementation programmes in low-income countries comprise part of the solution to meeting WHO Global Nutrition Targets.

Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells Suppress Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 Production in Response to TGFß Pathway Activation.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: TGFß/bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling in the liver plays a critical role in liver disease. Growth factors, such as BMP2, BMP6, and TGFß1, are released from LSECs and signal in a paracrine manner to hepatocytes and hepatic stellate cells to control systemic iron homeostasis and fibrotic processes, respectively. The misregulation of the TGFß/BMP pathway affects expression of the iron-regulated hormone hepcidin, causing frequent iron overload and deficiency diseases. However, whether LSEC-secreted factors can act in an autocrine manner to maintain liver homeostasis has not been addressed so far. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We analyzed publicly available RNA-sequencing data of mouse LSECs for ligand-receptor interactions and identified members of the TGFß family (BMP2, BMP6, and TGFß1) as ligands with the highest expression levels in LSECs that may signal in an autocrine manner. We next tested the soluble factors identified through in silico analysis in optimized murine LSEC primary cultures and mice. Exposure of murine LSEC primary cultures to these ligands shows that autocrine responses to BMP2 and BMP6 are blocked despite high expression levels of the required receptor complexes partially involving the inhibitor FK-506-binding protein 12. By contrast, LSECs respond efficiently to TGFß1 treatment, which causes reduced expression of BMP2 through activation of activin receptor-like kinase 5. CONCLUSIONS: These findings reveal that TGFß1 signaling is functionally interlinked with BMP signaling in LSECs, suggesting druggable targets for the treatment of iron overload diseases associated with deficiency of the BMP2-regulated hormone hepcidin, such as hereditary hemochromatosis, ß-thalassemia, and chronic liver diseases.

Iron- and erythropoietin-resistant anemia in a spontaneous breast cancer mouse model.

Anemia of cancer (AoC) with its multifactorial etiology and complex pathology is a poor prognostic indicator for cancer patients. One of the main causes of AoC is cancer-associated inflammation that activates mechanisms, commonly observed in anemia of inflammation, whereby functional iron deficiency and iron-restricted erythropoiesis are induced by increased hepcidin levels in response to raised levels of interleukin-6. So far only a few AoC mouse models have been described, and most of them did not fully recapitulate the interplay of anemia, increased hepcidin levels and functional iron deficiency in human patients. To test if the selection and the complexity of AoC mouse models dictates the pathology or if AoC in mice per se develops independently of iron deficiency, we characterized AoC in Trp53floxWapCre mice that spontaneously develop breast cancer. These mice developed AoC associated with high levels of interleukin-6 and iron deficiency. However, hepcidin levels were not increased and hypoferremia coincided with anemia rather than causing it. Instead, an early shift in the commitment of common myeloid progenitors from the erythroid to the myeloid lineage resulted in increased myelopoiesis and in the excessive production of neutrophils that accumulate in necrotic tumor regions. This process could not be prevented by either iron or erythropoietin treatment. Trp53floxWapCre mice are the first mouse model in which erythropoietin-resistant anemia is described and may serve as a disease model to test therapeutic approaches for a subpopulation of human cancer patients with normal or corrected iron levels who do not respond to erythropoietin.

Maternal Iron Status in Early Pregnancy and Blood Pressure Throughout Pregnancy, Placental Hemodynamics, and the Risk of Gestational Hypertensive Disorders.

BACKGROUND: In nonpregnant populations, higher serum ferritin, which reflects high iron stores, is associated with an increased risk of hypertension. We hypothesized that a dysregulated maternal iron status in early pregnancy may lead to impaired gestational hemodynamic adaptations, leading to an increased risk of gestational hypertensive disorders. OBJECTIVES: We examined the associations of maternal iron status with maternal blood pressure, placental hemodynamic parameters, and the risks of gestational hypertensive disorders. METHODS: In a population-based prospective cohort study among 5983 pregnant women, we measured maternal serum ferritin, transferrin saturation, serum iron, and transferrin concentrations at a median of 13.2 weeks gestation (95% range, 9.6-17.6). Maternal blood pressure was measured in early pregnancy, mid pregnancy, and late pregnancy, and placental hemodynamic parameters in mid pregnancy and late pregnancy were measured by ultrasound. Information on gestational hypertensive disorders was collected from medical records. We examined the associations of maternal early pregnancy iron status with maternal systolic and diastolic blood pressure, placental hemodynamic parameters, and the risks of gestational hypertensive disorders using linear and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Higher maternal early pregnancy serum ferritin concentrations were associated with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure throughout pregnancy in the basic models (P values < 0.05). After adjustment for maternal inflammation, sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, higher maternal early pregnancy serum ferritin concentrations were only associated with a higher early pregnancy diastolic blood pressure [0.27 (95% CI, 0.03-0.51) mmHg per SD score increase in serum ferritin] and with a higher mid pregnancy umbilical artery pulsatility index (P < 0.05). No associations with the risk of gestational hypertensive disorders were present. CONCLUSIONS: No consistent associations were present of maternal iron status in early pregnancy with gestational hemodynamic adaptations or the risks of gestational hypertensive disorders. Further studies are needed to examine the potential role of iron metabolism in the development of gestational hypertensive disorders within higher-risk populations.

Maternal early-pregnancy ferritin and offspring neurodevelopment: A prospective cohort study from gestation to school age.

BACKGROUND: Iron plays a role in many key processes in the developing brain. During pregnancy, iron supplementation is widely recommended to prevent and treat iron deficiency; however, the prevalence of iron deficiency and the risk of iron overload vary greatly between populations. Evidence on the role of high levels of maternal ferritin, a storage iron marker during pregnancy in relation to offspring neurodevelopment is lacking. OBJECTIVE: Our main objective was to examine if maternal ferritin levels during pregnancy are associated with child cognitive and motor abilities. METHODS: We included Dutch mother-child dyads from the prospective population-based Generation R Study, born in 2002-2006. We compared children whose mothers had high (standard deviation score >+1) or low (standard deviation score <-1) early-pregnancy ferritin to children whose mothers had intermediate ferritin (reference group) using linear regression. Children underwent non-verbal intelligence and language tests at 4-9 years (cognitive abilities), finger-tapping and balancing tests at 8-12 years (motor abilities), and structural magnetic resonance imaging at 8-12 years (brain morphology). Covariates were child age, sex, maternal intelligence quotient estimate, age, body-mass-index, education, parity, smoking and alcohol use. RESULTS: Of the 2479 mother-child dyads with data on maternal ferritin and at least one child neurodevelopmental outcome, 387 mothers had low (mean = 20.6 µg/L), 1700 intermediate (mean = 64.6 µg/L) and 392 high (mean = 170.3 µg/L) early-pregnancy ferritin. High maternal ferritin was associated with 2.54 points (95% confidence interval -4.16, -0.92) lower child intelligence quotient and 16.02 cm3 (95% confidence interval -30.57, -1.48) smaller brain volume. Results remained similar after excluding mothers with high C-reactive protein. Low maternal ferritin was not associated with child cognitive abilities. Maternal ferritin was unrelated to child motor outcomes. CONCLUSION: High maternal ferritin during pregnancy was associated with poorer child cognitive abilities and smaller brain volume. Maternal iron status during pregnancy may be associated with offspring neurodevelopment.

Vasculo-toxic and pro-inflammatory action of unbound haemoglobin, haem and iron in transfusion-dependent patients with haemolytic anaemias.

Increasing evidence suggests that free haem and iron exert vasculo-toxic and pro-inflammatory effects by activating endothelial and immune cells. In the present retrospective study, we compared serum samples from transfusion-dependent patients with ß-thalassaemia major and intermedia, hereditary spherocytosis and sickle cell disease (SCD). Haemolysis, transfusions and ineffective erythropoiesis contribute to haem and iron overload in haemolytic patients. In all cohorts we observed increased systemic haem and iron levels associated with scavenger depletion and toxic 'free' species formation. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation markers were significantly increased compared to healthy donors. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, oxidative stress markers remained significantly associated with both haem- and iron-related parameters, while soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (sVCAM-1), soluble endothelial selectin (sE-selectin) and tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) showed the strongest association with haem-related parameters and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (sICAM-1), sVCAM-1, interleukin 6 (IL-6) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) with iron-related parameters. While hereditary spherocytosis was associated with the highest IL-6 and TNFα levels, ß-thalassaemia major showed limited inflammation compared to SCD. The sVCAM1 increase was significantly lower in patients with SCD receiving exchange compared to simple transfusions. The present results support the involvement of free haem/iron species in the pathogenesis of vascular dysfunction and sterile inflammation in haemolytic diseases, irrespective of the underlying haemolytic mechanism, and highlight the potential therapeutic benefit of iron/haem scavenging therapies in these conditions.

Cell-specific expression of Hfe determines the outcome of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection in mice

Mutations in HFE cause hereditary hemochromatosis type I hallmarked by increased iron absorption, iron accumulation in hepatocytes and iron deficiency in myeloid cells. HFE encodes an MHC-I like molecule, but its function in immune responses to infection remains incompletely understood. Here, we investigated putative roles of Hfe in myeloid cells and hepatocytes, separately, upon infection with Salmonella Typhimurium, an intracellular bacterium with iron-dependent virulence. We found that constitutive and macrophage-specific deletion of Hfe protected infected mice. The propagation of Salmonella in macrophages was reduced due to limited intramacrophage iron availability for bacterial growth and increased expression of the anti-microbial enzyme nitric oxide synthase-2. By contrast, mice with hepatocyte-specific deletion of Hfe succumbed earlier to Salmonella infection because of unrestricted extracellular bacterial replication associated with high iron availability in the serum and impaired expression of essential host defense molecules such as interleukin-6, interferon-γ and nitric oxide synthase-2. Wild-type mice subjected to dietary iron overload phenocopied hepatocyte-specific Hfe deficiency suggesting that increased iron availability in the serum is deleterious in Salmonella infection and underlies impaired host immune responses. Moreover, the macrophage-specific effect is dominant over hepatocyte-specific Hfe-depletion, as Hfe knock-out mice have increased survival despite the higher parenchymal iron load associated with systemic loss of Hfe. We conclude that cell-specific expression of Hfe in hepatocytes and macrophages differentially affects the course of infections with specific pathogens by determining bacterial iron access and the efficacy of anti-microbial immune effector pathways. This may explain the high frequency and evolutionary conservation of human HFE mutations.

Prognostic impact of hypochromic erythrocytes in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency affects up to 50% of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) but iron markers such as ferritin and serum iron are confounded by several non-disease related factors like acute inflammation and diet. The aim of this study was to identify a new marker for iron deficiency and clinical outcome in PAH patients. METHODS: In this single-center, retrospective study we assessed indicators of iron status and clinical parameters specifying the time to clinical worsening (TTCW) and survival in PAH patients at time of initial diagnosis and at 1-year follow-up using univariable and multivariable analysis. RESULTS: In total, 150 patients were included with an invasively confirmed PAH and complete data on iron metabolism. The proportion of hypochromic erythrocytes > 2% at initial diagnosis was identified as an independent predictor for a shorter TTCW (p = 0.0001) and worse survival (p = 0.002) at initial diagnosis as well as worse survival (p = 0.016) at 1-year follow-up. Only a subset of these patients (64%) suffered from iron deficiency. Low ferritin or low serum iron neither correlated with TTCW nor survival. Severe hemoglobin deficiency at baseline was significantly associated with a shorter TTCW (p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of hypochromic erythrocytes > 2% was a strong and independent predictor of mortality and shorter TTCW in this cohort of PAH patients. Thus, it can serve as a valuable indicator of iron homeostasis and prognosis even in patients without iron deficiency or anemia. Further studies are needed to confirm the results and to investigate therapeutic implications.

Atherosclerosis is aggravated by iron overload and ameliorated by dietary and pharmacological iron restriction.

AIMS: Whether and how iron affects the progression of atherosclerosis remains highly debated. Here, we investigate susceptibility to atherosclerosis in a mouse model (ApoE-/- FPNwt/C326S), which develops the disease in the context of elevated non-transferrin bound serum iron (NTBI). METHODS AND RESULTS: Compared with normo-ferremic ApoE-/- mice, atherosclerosis is profoundly aggravated in iron-loaded ApoE-/- FPNwt/C326S mice, suggesting a pro-atherogenic role for iron. Iron heavily deposits in the arterial media layer, which correlates with plaque formation, vascular oxidative stress and dysfunction. Atherosclerosis is exacerbated by iron-triggered lipid profile alterations, vascular permeabilization, sustained endothelial activation, elevated pro-atherogenic inflammatory mediators, and reduced nitric oxide availability. NTBI causes iron overload, induces reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis in cultured vascular cells, and stimulates massive MCP-1-mediated monocyte recruitment, well-established mechanisms contributing to atherosclerosis. NTBI-mediated toxicity is prevented by transferrin- or chelator-mediated iron scavenging. Consistently, a low-iron diet and iron chelation therapy strongly improved the course of the disease in ApoE-/- FPNwt/C326S mice. Our results are corroborated by analyses of serum samples of haemochromatosis patients, which show an inverse correlation between the degree of iron depletion and hallmarks of endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. CONCLUSION: Our data demonstrate that NTBI-triggered iron overload aggravates atherosclerosis and unravel a causal link between NTBI and the progression of atherosclerotic lesions. Our findings support clinical applications of iron restriction in iron-loaded individuals to counteract iron-aggravated vascular dysfunction and atherosclerosis.

The Macrophage Iron Signature in Health and Disease.

Throughout life, macrophages are located in every tissue of the body, where their main roles are to phagocytose cellular debris and recycle aging red blood cells. In the tissue niche, they promote homeostasis through trophic, regulatory, and repair functions by responding to internal and external stimuli. This in turn polarizes macrophages into a broad spectrum of functional activation states, also reflected in their iron-regulated gene profile. The fast adaptation to the environment in which they are located helps to maintain tissue homeostasis under physiological conditions.

Transferrin receptor 2 is a potential novel therapeutic target for ß-thalassemia: evidence from a murine model.

ß-thalassemias are genetic disorders characterized by anemia, ineffective erythropoiesis, and iron overload. Current treatment of severe cases is based on blood transfusion and iron chelation or allogeneic bone marrow (BM) transplantation. Novel approaches are explored for nontransfusion-dependent patients (thalassemia intermedia) who develop anemia and iron overload. Here, we investigated the erythropoietin (EPO) receptor partner, transferrin receptor 2 (TFR2), as a novel potential therapeutic target. We generated a murine model of thalassemia intermedia specifically lacking BM Tfr2: because their erythroid cells are more susceptible to EPO stimulation, mice show improved erythropoiesis and red blood cell morphology as well as partial correction of anemia and iron overload. The beneficial effects become attenuated over time, possibly due to insufficient iron availability to sustain the enhanced erythropoiesis. Germ line deletion of Tfr2, including haploinsufficiency, had a similar effect in the thalassemic model. Because targeting TFR2 enhances EPO-mediated effects exclusively in cells expressing both receptors, this approach may have advantages over erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in the treatment of other anemias.