Gender differences in the supply of alcohol to adolescent daughters and sons.

Background: Parents are the main supplier of alcohol to children but it is not known whether mothers and fathers equally contribute to the supply of alcohol to their female and male children as these children transition to adulthood.Objectives: i) to determine whether the gender of the parent is associated with the gender of the adolescent offspring when alcohol is supplied and ii) whether the gender of the parent supplying is associated with gender differences in adolescent binge drinking and alcohol related harms.Methods: Longitudinal cohort of 1,927 (males = 1052) Australian adolescents (mean age 12.9 years), recruited in 2010/11 from schools in Australia and surveyed annually for six years. We assessed the association between adolescent and parent gender related to subsequent adolescent drinking, binge drinking (>4 standard drinks), and alcohol-related harms.Results: At mean age of 12.9 years about one in ten children report parental supply of alcohol which increases to about four in ten children by 17.8 years. Mothers consistently more often supply their daughters with alcohol than their sons, [Wave 5 OR 1.77 (1.53,2.05)], while mothers less often supply sons than their daughters, [Wave 5 OR 0.82 (0.71,0.95)]. Mothers' supply of alcohol to daughters predicts substantially increased odds of daughters binge drinking, [OR 1.67 (1.10,2.53)] and experiencing alcohol related harms, [OR 1.65 (1.10,2.48)].Conclusion: There is a need to involve both mothers and fathers and to equally target female and male children in programs to reduce the harmful consequences of parental supply of alcohol to their children.

Intimate partner violence and subsequent depression and anxiety disorders.

PURPOSE: The current longitudinal study examines the temporal association between different types of intimate partner violence (IPV) at early adulthood (21 years) and subsequent depression and anxiety disorders in young adulthood (30 years). METHODS: Participants were from the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy. A cohort of 1529 was available for analysis. IPV was measured using the Composite Abuse Scale at 21 years. At the 21 and 30-year follow-ups, major depression disorder and anxiety disorders were measured using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. RESULTS: We found a temporal relationship between almost all forms of IPV at 21 years and females' new cases of major depression disorder at 30 years. This association was not found for females who had previously been diagnosed with depression disorder. IPV did not predict the onset of new anxiety disorders, but it had a robust association with anxiety disorders in females with a previous anxiety diagnosis. We observed no significant link between IPV and males' subsequent major depression disorder. Interestingly, the experience of emotional abuse was a robust predictor of new cases of anxiety disorders but only for males. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest the need for sex-specific and integrated interventions addressing both IPV and mental health problems simultaneously. IPV interventions should be informed by the extend to which pre-existing anxiety and depression may lead to different psychological responses to the IPV experience. Increased risk of anxiety disorders predicted by emotional abuse experienced by males challenges beliefs about invulnerability of men in the abusive relationships and demands further attention.

Parent hazardous drinking and their children's alcohol use in early and mid-adolescence: prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Why adolescents' drinking is associated with their parents' drinking remains unclear. We examined associations in a prospective cohort study, adjusting for socio-demographic characteristics and family factors. METHODS: We recruited 1927 children from grade 7 classes (mean age 13 years), and one of their parents, in three Australian states, contacted participants annually from 2010 to 2014, and analysed data from assessments at ages 13, 14, 15 and 16 years. We used the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption (AUDIT-C) subscale to identify hazardous drinking in parents (score ≥5) and children (score ≥3) and constructed mixed-effect logistic regression models, accounting for clustering within school and adjusting for likely confounders. We evaluated the sensitivity of estimates by imputing missing values assuming the data were missing at random vs. missing not at random. RESULTS: Parent hazardous drinking predicted mid-adolescent hazardous drinking, e.g. 15 years olds whose parents [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.00; 95% confidence interval 1.51-2.64] or parents' partners (aOR 1.94; 1.48-2.55) were hazardous drinkers had higher odds of being hazardous drinkers at age 16. The magnitude of univariate associations changed little after adjusting for covariates, and sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness of the association, across a wide range of assumptions about the missing data. CONCLUSIONS: The associations between parents' and their adolescent children's hazardous drinking are unlikely to be due to confounding by socio-demographic and family factors. Parents should be encouraged, and supported by public policy, to reduce their own alcohol consumption in order to reduce their children's risk of becoming hazardous drinkers.

Age of Alcohol Initiation and Progression to Binge Drinking in Adolescence: A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Early alcohol initiation is common and has been associated with the development of alcohol problems. Yet, past research on the association of age of initiation with later problem drinking has produced inconsistent findings. Using prospective data from the Australian Parental Supply of Alcohol Longitudinal Study cohort, this study examined age of alcohol initiation, and of first drunkenness, and associations with subsequent drinking in adolescence. METHODS: A total of 1,673 parent-child dyads recruited through Australian secondary schools completed annual surveys for 5 years (grades 7 to 11). Limiting the sample to those adolescents who had initiated alcohol use by age 17 (n = 839), multinomial logistic regression models were used to examine associations between (i) age of initiation to alcohol use (consuming at least 1 full serve) and (ii) age of first drunkenness, and 2 outcomes: (i) binge drinking (consuming >4 standard drinks on a single occasion), and (ii) the total number of alcoholic drinks consumed in the past year, adjusted for a range of potential child, parent, family, and peer covariates. RESULTS: Fifty percent of adolescents reported alcohol use and 36% reported bingeing at wave 5 (mean age 16.9 years), and the mean age of initiation to alcohol use for drinkers was 15.1 years. Age of initiation was significantly associated with binge drinking and total quantity of alcohol consumed in unadjusted and adjusted models. Age of first drunkenness was associated with total quantity of alcohol consumed in unadjusted models but not adjusted models and was not associated with subsequent bingeing. CONCLUSIONS: Initiating alcohol use earlier in adolescence is associated with an increased risk of binge drinking and higher quantity of consumption in late secondary school, supporting an argument for delaying alcohol initiation for as long as possible to reduce the risk for problematic use in later adolescence and the alcohol-related harms that may accompany this use.

Does leaving an abusive partner lead to a decline in victimization?

BACKGROUND: This paper investigates gender differences in persistence of intimate partner violence (IPV), for those remaining or leaving an abusive relationship. We followed a sample of males and females to examine whether leaving an abusive partner may alter the continuity of victimization. METHODS: Data were taken from the 21 and 30-year follow-ups of the Mater Hospital and University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) in Australia. A cohort of 1265 respondents, including 874 females and 391 males, completed a 21-item version of the Composite Abuse Scale. RESULTS: We found proportionally similar rates of IPV victimization for males and females at both the 21 and 30 year follow-ups. Females who reported they had an abusive partner at the 21 year follow-up were more likely to subsequently change their partner than did males. Harassment and then emotional abuse appeared to have a stronger association for females leaving a partner. For males, a reported history of IPV was not significantly associated with leaving the partner. There was no significant association between leaving (or not) a previous abusive relationship and later victimization, either for male or female respondents. CONCLUSION: Changing a partner does not interrupt the continuity of victimization either for male or female respondents, and previous IPV victimization remained a determining factor of re-abuse, despite re-partnering.

Substantiated Childhood Maltreatment and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization in Young Adulthood: A Birth Cohort Study.

Little is known about the associations between various types of childhood maltreatment and multiple forms of intimate partner violence victimization in early adulthood. This study examines the extent to which childhood experiences of maltreatment increase the risk for intimate partner violence victimization in early adulthood. Data for the present study are from 3322 young adults (55 % female) of the Mater Hospital-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy with the mean age of 20.6 years. The Mater Hospital-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy is a prospective Australian pre-birth cohort study of mothers consecutively recruited during their first antenatal clinic visit at Brisbane's Mater Hospital from 1981 through to 1983. Participants completed the Composite Abuse Scale at 21-year follow-up and linked this dataset to agency recorded substantiated cases of childhood maltreatment. In adjusted models, the odds of reporting emotional intimate partner violence victimization were 1.84, 2.64 and 3.19 times higher in physically abused, neglected and emotionally abused children, respectively. Similarly, the odds of physical intimate partner violence victimization were 1.76, 2.31, 2.74 and 2.76 times higher in those children who had experienced physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect and emotional abuse, respectively. Harassment was 1.63 times higher in emotionally abused children. The odds of severe combined abuse were 3.97 and 4.62 times greater for emotionally abused and neglected children, respectively. The strongest associations involved reports of child emotional abuse and neglect and multiple forms of intimate partner violence victimization in young adulthood. Childhood maltreatment is a chronic adversity that is associated with specific and multiple forms of intimate partner violence victimization in adulthood.

Cannabis use and quality of life of adolescents and young adults: findings from an Australian birth cohort.

Cannabis is generally used to enhance mood (quality of life), but it is not known whether it has this effect in the medium to longer term. Little is currently known about the temporal sequence between cannabis use and the quality of life (QOL). Data are taken from a prospective longitudinal study of pregnant women recruited at their first antenatal visit in Brisbane, Australia. Offspring data from the follow-ups with 14-year-olds and 21-year-olds are used here. Indicators of QOL, happiness, and satisfaction at 14 years are considered as predictors of subsequent cannabis use. The association between cannabis use and QOL at 21 years, adjusting for prior QOL (14 years), is also examined. Socio-demographic characteristics were included as potential confounders relevant to QOL assessments. In this cohort, lower QOL in the early teenage years predicted subsequent onset of cannabis use in young adulthood. After adjustment for socio-demographic characteristics and for QOL pre-cannabis use, participants who used cannabis more frequently had a lower QOL at the 21-years follow-up. Frequent use of cannabis does not appear to enhance the user's QOL and appears to be associated with a reduced QOL into young adulthood.

Quality of life of people who inject drugs: characteristics and comparisons with other population samples.

PURPOSE: To assess the quality of life (QOL) of persons who inject drugs. METHODS: Some 483 current injecting drug users visiting a large NSP over a 2-week period in October 2009 were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. QOL was measured using the WHOQOL-BREF. Data were collected on age, gender, injecting patterns, current drug treatment status and hepatitis C status. Participant QOL profiles were compared to published domain scores for a range of other population groups. RESULTS: People who inject drugs (PWID) experience a very poor QOL irrespective of socio-demographic characteristics, injecting patterns, hepatitis C sero-status and drug treatment status. Sample participants (PWID) experience a QOL below that experienced by many population groups in the community affected by disabling chronic illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Injecting drug use is associated with a poor QOL. Some PWID may be self-medicating for chronic non-malignant pain, and it is likely that these people had a low QOL prior to the decision to inject. Despite this caveat, it remains likely that injecting drug use does little to enhance the QOL of the user.

Health needs of Australian Indigenous young people entering detention.

AIM: To determine whether there are different health needs associated with differences between Indigenous and non-Indigenous youth in detention in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. METHODS: All records of young people (aged 10 to 21 years) taken into detention in Brisbane Queensland over the period 1 July 2001 to 30 June 2009 were reviewed, and data were extracted documenting the mental health and related behaviours of those referred to the Mental Health, Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drugs Service. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems - Tenth Revision (ICD-10) criteria were applied to a clinical interview. ICD-10 diagnostic outcomes and reason for referral are presented by Indigenous status and age. RESULTS: Young male (under 14 years of age) Indigenous respondents are substantially over-represented in youth in detention. Indigenous youth in detention are disproportionately referred and diagnosed with a substance use problem. Referral and diagnosis of substance use problems was not as commonly found for non-Indigenous youth. CONCLUSIONS: Young Indigenous persons are substantially over-represented in those taken into detention in Queensland. This study shows significant differences in relation to mental health and substance use assessment outcomes for Indigenous and non-Indigenous young people in youth detention in Queensland. Further research focusing on service delivery for Indigenous young people should focus on their specific needs.

Do adversities experienced over the early life course predict mental illness and substance use behaviour in adulthood: A birth cohort study.

A range of adult health outcomes have been linked to early childhood adversities. These early adversities include parental marital breakdown and family economic disadvantage. Childhood experiences of maltreatment have also been linked to a variety of adult health outcomes. As both childhood adversities and child maltreatment often co-occur, we examine whether childhood adversities at 3 stages of the child's early life course predict any of nine adult mental health outcomes controlling for past experiences of child trauma (maltreatment). Data are from a long running birth cohort study, the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP). We use bivariate and multinomial logistic regression with adjustment for confounding, to predict adult outcomes. Experiences of recent life events in pregnancy appear to be unrelated to adult mental health. Recent life events experienced at the 5-year follow-up independently predicts lifetime ever depression and cannabis use disorder. Experiences of recent life events at 14-years of age predict lifetime ever depression, cannabis and amphetamine use in adulthood. Our findings support early childhood interventions which should be supplemented with a focus on later childhood and the adolescent period of development. Interventions should also focus on the broader social and demographic context within which children are born. Efforts to reduce the occurrence and consequences of childhood maltreatment should be given primary attention in order to reduce the childhood factors contributing to adult mental illness.

Trajectories of parental and peer supply of alcohol in adolescence and associations with later alcohol consumption and harms: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Supply of alcohol to adolescents is associated with increased alcohol consumption and harms including alcohol use disorder (AUD). We aimed to identify: (1) trajectories of alcohol supply to adolescents; (2) sociodemographic characteristics associated with supply trajectory; (3) patterns of alcohol consumption by supply trajectory; and (4) supply trajectory associations with adverse alcohol outcomes. METHODS: We used Australian longitudinal survey data (N = 1813) to model latent trajectories of parent and peer alcohol supply over five annual follow-ups (Waves 2-6; Mage 13.9-17.8 years). Regression models assessed associations between supply trajectories and Wave 1 (Mage=12.9 years) sociodemographic factors and associations between supply trajectories and Wave 7 (Mage=18.8 years) alcohol outcomes. RESULTS: We identified five alcohol supply classes: (1) minimal supply (n = 739, 40.8%); (2) early parent sips, late peer/parent whole drinks (n = 254, 14.0%); (3) late peer/parent whole drinks (n = 419, 23.1%); (4) early parent sips, mid peer/parent whole drinks (n = 293, 16.2%); (5) early peer/parent whole drinks (n = 108, 6.0%). Compared to minimal supply, the other classes were 2.7-12.9 times as likely to binge drink, 1.6-3.0 times as likely to experience alcohol-related harms, and 2.1-8.6 times as likely to report AUD symptoms at age 19. CONCLUSION: Earlier supply of whole drinks, particularly from peers, was associated with increased risk of early adulthood adverse alcohol outcomes. While minimal supply represented the lowest risk, supplying sips only in early-mid adolescence and delaying supply of whole drinks until late adolescence is likely to be less risky than earlier supply of whole drinks.

A genome-wide association study of total child psychiatric problems scores.

Substantial genetic correlations have been reported across psychiatric disorders and numerous cross-disorder genetic variants have been detected. To identify the genetic variants underlying general psychopathology in childhood, we performed a genome-wide association study using a total psychiatric problem score. We analyzed 6,844,199 common SNPs in 38,418 school-aged children from 20 population-based cohorts participating in the EAGLE consortium. The SNP heritability of total psychiatric problems was 5.4% (SE = 0.01) and two loci reached genome-wide significance: rs10767094 and rs202005905. We also observed an association of SBF2, a gene associated with neuroticism in previous GWAS, with total psychiatric problems. The genetic effects underlying the total score were shared with common psychiatric disorders only (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, depression, insomnia) (rG > 0.49), but not with autism or the less common adult disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or eating disorders) (rG < 0.01). Importantly, the total psychiatric problem score also showed at least a moderate genetic correlation with intelligence, educational attainment, wellbeing, smoking, and body fat (rG > 0.29). The results suggest that many common genetic variants are associated with childhood psychiatric symptoms and related phenotypes in general instead of with specific symptoms. Further research is needed to establish causality and pleiotropic mechanisms between related traits.

Depression following marital problems: different impacts on mothers and their children? A 21-year prospective study.

PURPOSE: With increased rates of marital breakdown it is important to identify the long-term mental health outcomes of marital problems and marital change for mothers and their children. Of particular interest is the possibility that mothers may benefit from leaving a relationship, but their children may not. This study examines the effects of marital quality and marital change on symptoms of depression in mothers and their children over 21 years. METHOD: Data (3,512 mothers and 3,334 children) were from Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP), a population-based birth cohort study, which commenced in Brisbane, Australia, in 1981. Mothers and children were followed up at birth, 6 months and 5, 14 and 21 years after the initial interview. Marital status and marital quality were assessed at 5 and 14 years. Symptoms of depression were assessed in mothers and children at the 21-year follow-up. RESULTS: A poor-quality marital relationship at the 14-year follow-up was associated with increased symptoms of depression in both mothers (+3.3 symptoms) and children (+1.1 symptoms) 7 years later. Symptoms of depression in the mother improved if she changed to unpartnered status (-1.31 symptoms); however, children experienced an increase in depression (+1.30 symptoms). There was a substantial increase in mothers' depression (+3.9 symptoms) associated with a poor reconstructed relationship but no change for children (0.68). CONCLUSION: Marital transitions may improve symptoms of depression in the mothers but not in their children. Clinical decisions for families living in some difficult marital relationships need to take into account the association between maternal and child mental health particularly evidence from clinical samples that remission of depression in the mother improves outcomes for the child.

Gender Differences in Intimate Partner Violence in Current and Prior Relationships.

Although much available research indicates that intimate partner violence (IPV) is male perpetrated, growing recent evidence suggests a gender symmetry model of family violence. This article examines gender differences in IPV in current and prior relationships reported by young adults. Data comprised 2,060 young adults (62.1% females) who participated in the 30-year follow-up of the Mater Hospital and University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) in Brisbane, Australia. The Composite Abuse Scale was used to measure IPV during the last 12 months in the respondents' most recent relationship. Similar proportions of males and females reported leaving their prior relationships. Both males and females who were not currently in a relationship reported experiencing much higher rates of IPV than those who were in a relationship. There were no differences in the past experience of IPV between males and females who were not currently in a relationship, but males in a current relationship reported they experienced most forms of IPV more often than did females. IPV typically involves both male and female perpetrators and victims. It does appear that the majority of relationships involving higher rates of IPV were dissolved. IPV was more likely to have occurred in relationships that ended than in relationships that persisted. Males more often remain in an abusive relationship and report experiencing higher rates of IPV in their current relationships compared with females.

Commercial sexual practices before and after legalization in Australia.

The nature of sex work changes over time for many reasons. In recent decades around the world, there has been movement toward legalization and control of sex economies. Studies of the possible impact of legalization mainly have focused on sexually transmitted infections and violence, with little attention to change in the diversity of sexual services provided. This study examined the practices of sex workers before and after legalization of prostitution. Cross-sectional surveys of comparable samples of female sex workers were conducted in 1991 (N = 200, aged 16-46 years) and 2003 (N = 247, aged 18-57 years) in Queensland, Australia, spanning a period of major change in regulation of the local industry. In 2003, male clients at brothels and private sole operators (N = 161; aged 19-72 years) were also interviewed. Over time, there was a clear increase in the provision of "exotic" sexual services, including bondage and discipline, submission, fantasy, use of sex toys, golden showers, fisting, and lesbian double acts, while "traditional" services mostly remained at similar levels (with substantial decrease in oral sex without a condom). Based on comparisons of self-reports of clients and workers, the demand for anal intercourse, anal play, and urination during sex apparently exceeded supply, especially in licensed brothels. Within this population, legalization of sex work coincided with a substantial increase in diversity of services, but it appears that in the regulated working environments, clients who prefer high risk practices might not dictate what is available to them.

Income, Gender, and Forms of Intimate Partner Violence.

Poverty and socioeconomic disadvantage place demands on intimate relationships and provide fertile ground for disagreements and conflicts. It is not known whether poverty also leads to intimate partner violence (IPV). This study investigates the association between income and forms of IPV victimization for both males and females. We also examine whether income inequalities are related to IPV and whether the gender balance of household income contributes to IPV victimization. Data are from a cohort of 2,401 young offspring (60.3% females) who participated at the 30-year follow-up of the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy in Brisbane, Australia. Participants completed questionnaires including their income details and the Composite Abuse Scale. Within low-income families, both partners experience higher levels of IPV. Females' income is not independently related to experiencing IPV either for females or males. Females and males experience a higher rate of IPV when the husband earns a low income. When considering partners' relative income, families in which both partners earned a low income experienced higher levels of almost all forms of IPV. Income (im)balance in which females earn more or partners both have higher income was less often associated with the experience OF IPV IPV appears to be mutually experienced in the setting of the poverty. Objective economic hardship and scarcity create a context which facilitates IPV for both partners in a relationship.

Agency notification and retrospective self-reports of childhood maltreatment in a 30-Year cohort: Estimating population prevalence from different data sources.

BACKGROUND: There is little known about how two sources of child maltreatment reports correspond, specifically for emotional, physical, sexual abuse and emotional or physical neglect. OBJECTIVE: To compare agency and self-reports of child maltreatment and determine whether they are predicted by similar early life course adverse experiences. Participants Data are taken from a long running birth cohort study (Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy - MUSP). Mothers (N=7223) were recruited in 1981-83 and their children were followed-up 30 years later (2010-14). In 2000 data from the relevant child protection agency were accessed and linked to the survey data. Setting Consecutive women giving birth to a live singleton baby at a major obstetrical service in Brisbane, Australia were recruited and both mother and child were repeatedly follow-up over a 30 year period. Methods Birth cohort study with data linkage of child protection agency records and self-report survey data (using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire - CTQ) of childhood maltreatment experiences. We compare reports of emotional, physical and sexual abuse and neglect using agency and self-reports (Cramer's V and kappa). RESULTS: Most children who are notified cases of maltreatment subsequently self-report they experienced little or no maltreatment in childhood. Most children who report experiencing severe maltreatment have not previously been notified to the protection agency. Teenage mothers have children who are notified 2.89 (1.52, 5.52) times, self-report 2.01 (1.31, 3.09) times and both notified and self-report 3.61 (2.26, 6.10) times more than their older comparison mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Different methods of assessing maltreatment identify different subsets of those children who have experienced maltreatment.

Illicit drug use by mothers and their daughters in Australia: A comparison of two generations.

BACKGROUND: While recent decades have witnessed an increase in the use of illicit drugs in Australia, the extent to which the types of drugs used has changed over a generation of young women has not been documented. METHODS: Data are from a prospective birth cohort study. Mothers were recruited in early pregnancy (1981-83) and then they and their child were followed up, with mothers interviewed 27 years (2008-2011), and daughters 30 years (2010-14), after the birth. At these most recent interviews both mothers and daughters were administered the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI III). Comparisons are for mothers and daughters separated by a 25 year period. For this study, we compare levels of lifetime use of a range of illicit drugs and drug use disorders reported by mothers and their daughters (N = 998 mother/daughter pairs) with adjustment for family income, marital status, education and occupation. RESULTS: There has been a generational increase in the use of illicit substances and prevalence of substance use disorders experienced by Australian women. Mothers' use of illicit drugs was generally restricted to cannabis. By contrast the majority of daughters report lifetime use of an illicit drug with cannabis, club drugs and stimulants the most common. Compared to the mothers, daughters used club drugs 50 times, cocaine 19 times and inhalants 20 times more often. Daughters report experiencing 12 times the rate of cocaine use disorders, 9 times the rate of stimulant disorders and 7 times the rate of cannabis use disorders compared to their mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers of the current generation of 30 year old Australian women rarely used illicit drugs and few experienced a drug use disorder. The current generation of young women report commonly using one or more illicit drugs with a substantial minority experiencing a drug use disorder. It is unlikely that the use of illicit drugs by young women in Australia will be reversed in the foreseeable future. Government policies and treatment practices need to be calibrated to the reality of the much greater contact with illicit drugs being exhibited by younger women.

The association between parental supply of alcohol and supply from other sources to young people: a prospective cohort.

AIMS: Despite legal age limits set for alcohol consumption, parents are one of the main suppliers of alcohol to underage minors. Although supply from non-parental sources has been found to be associated with greater risk of harm compared with parental supply, the association between parental supply and supply from other sources is unclear. This study investigated the associations between parental supply of sips and whole serves of alcohol on subsequent other supply, conditional on current supply from non-parental sources. METHODS: Data from the Australian Parental Supply of Alcohol Longitudinal Study cohort of adolescents was used. A cohort of 1927 Australian children recruited in grade 7 (mean age 12.9 years) was surveyed annually from 2010 to 2016 (94%, n = 1821 included for analyses). The primary outcome was alcohol exposure from other sources ('other supply'), including alcohol supply from other adults, friends, siblings, or self-supply, compared with adolescents reporting no supply from these sources. Analyses were conducted using random intercept logistic regression (to account for within-respondent correlation). RESULTS: Parental supply of alcohol alone was associated with increased odds of receiving alcohol from other non-parental sources in subsequent years (OR: 1.99; 95% CI: 1.65-2.39) after adjusting for confounders. Increased odds of subsequent other supply were associated with current parental supply of sips (OR: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.56-2.36) and whole drinks (OR: 2.76; 95% CI: 1.85-4.11). CONCLUSIONS: Parental supply of alcohol appears to increase the risk of subsequent supply of alcohol from other sources in certain contexts.

Parental supply of sips and whole drinks of alcohol to adolescents and associations with binge drinking and alcohol-related harms: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Parents frequently supply alcohol to their children, often only sips. We investigated whether supply of sips and whole drinks, from parents and other sources, are differentially associated with subsequent drinking outcomes. METHODS: A cohort of 1910 adolescents (mean age 12.9yrs) were surveyed annually over seven years from 2010-11. We examined prospective, adjusted associations between the quantity of supply from parental and non-parental sources in the preceding 12 months and five outcomes in the subsequent year, over several consecutive years: binge drinking; alcohol-related harms; symptoms of alcohol abuse, dependence and alcohol use disorder (AUD). RESULTS: In early waves, most parental supply comprised sips, while supply of whole drinks increased in later waves. Among those not receiving alcohol from other sources, parental supply of sips was associated with increased odds of binge drinking (OR: 1.85; 99.5 % CI: 1.17-2.91) and alcohol-related harms (OR: 1.70; 99.5 % CI: 1.20-2.42), but not with reporting symptoms of alcohol abuse, dependence or AUD, compared with no supply. Relative to no supply, supply of sips from other sources was associated with increased odds of binge drinking (OR: 2.04; 99.5 % CI: 1.14-3.67) only. Compared with supply of sips, supply of whole drinks by parents or others had higher odds of binge drinking, alcohol-related harms, symptoms of dependence and of AUD. Secondary analysis demonstrated that supply of larger quantities was associated with an increased risk of all outcomes. CONCLUSION: Parental provision of sips is associated with increased risks and the supply of greater quantities was associated with an increasing risk of adverse outcomes. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02280551).