Using wearable technology for Posture Regulation to Improve Surgical Ergonomics in the paediatric operating room: the UPRISE trial: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: The rising prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders has numerous physical, financial, and mental repercussions for surgeons. This study aims to establish whether the use of a wearable posture device can improve the operating time spent in suboptimal, high-risk postures. METHODS: Surgeons were recruited in Phase 1 of this prospective randomised study and baseline postural data was obtained. In Phase 2, participants were randomised to receive either a traditional educational workshop or intraoperative vibrations from the device to correct postural lapses. During minor elective day cases, intraoperative postural data was collected and stratified by forward flexion angle, into five risk categories (negligible to very high). Participants' experience with the sensor was also assessed. RESULTS: A total of 100 surgical procedures (Phase 1: n = 50; Phase 2: n = 50) were performed by eight surgeons of varying seniority. Exposure to the educational intervention increased time spent in suboptimal posture (Phase 1 vs. Phase 2); 47.5% vs. 67.8%, p = 0.05. However, the vibrational intervention significantly reduced this time; 50.0% vs. 20.7%, p = 0.005. Procedure type didn't influence posture although, laparoscopic interventions spent most time in negligible-risk postures; 47.7% vs. 49.3%, compared to open procedures. Surgical consultants spent less time in suboptimal posture compared to fellow/registrars; 30.3% vs. 72.6% (Phase 1) and 33.8% vs. 65.3% (Phase 2). CONCLUSION: Vibrational intervention from the device significantly decreased the time spent in suboptimal, high-risk postures. As procedure type wasn't correlated with postural changes, surgeon-specific factors in regulating posture are paramount. Finally, surgeon experience was positively correlated with improved surgical ergonomics.

Dyadic practice for the acquisition of laparoscopic skills (DALS)-A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic simulation is integral to surgical education but requires significant resources. We aimed to compare the effectiveness of dyadic practice (DP), involving two individuals working together, to individual practice (IP) for novices acquiring laparoscopic skills and assess their learning experience. METHODS: We conducted a Randomized Controlled Trial comparing DP and IP for novice medical students who completed a laparoscopic simulation workshop. Participants were assessed individually pre-course (test 1), post-course (test 2), and 8-week retention (test 3) using a validated quantitative method. A post-course questionnaire and interview, analyzed with thematic analysis, assessed the learning experience. RESULTS: In total, 31 DP and 35 IP participants completed the study. There was no difference in mean scores between DP and IP groups in all three tests: test 1 (p = 0.55), test 2 (p = 0.26), test 3 (p = 0.35). In trend analysis, the DP group improved post-course (test 1 vs. 2: p = 0.02) and maintained this level at the retention test (2 vs. 3: p = 0.80, 1 vs. 3: p = 0.02). Whilst the IP group also improved post-course (test 1 vs. 2: p < 0.001), this improvement was not retained (2 vs. 3: p = 0.003, 1 vs. 3: p = 0.32). Thematic analysis revealed that DP participants valued peer support, peer feedback and observation time, but also acknowledged the limitations of reduced practical time and issues with teamwork. CONCLUSION: DP is non-inferior to IP for novices learning laparoscopic skills, is well received and may lead to superior long-term skill retention.

The utility of sonographic signs to diagnose simple and complicated appendicitis in children.

BACKGROUND: Acute appendicitis is classified into simple (SA) and complicated (CA). Ultrasound scans (USS) can be useful in clinically equivocal cases, by visualising primary and secondary signs. This study explores the utility of sonographic signs to diagnose and differentiate appendicitis in children. METHODS: Single-centre retrospective cohort study over a 2-year period. Consecutive USS for suspected appendicitis were included; sonographic signs were extracted from standardised institutional worksheets. USS results were compared with pre-defined intraoperative criteria for SA and CA, confirmed with histological analysis. Data are reported as median [interquartile range], percentages (number), area under the curve (AUC), conventional diagnostic formulae and adjusted odds ratios following multiple logistic regression (p < 0.05 considered significant). RESULTS: A total of 934 USS were included, with median age 10.7 [8.0-13.4] years, majority were female (54%). One quarter (n = 226) had SA, 12% (n = 113) had CA, 61% (n = 571) had no appendectomy and 3% (n = 24) had negative appendicectomy. Appendix visualisation rate on USS was 61% (n = 569), with 62% (n = 580) having a conclusive report. Sonographic signs suggesting appendicitis included an appendiceal diameter > 7 mm (AUC 0.92, [95% CI: 0.90-0.94]), an appendicolith (p = 0.003), hyperaemia (p = 0.001), non-compressibility (p = 0.029) and no luminal gas (p = 0.004). Secondary sonographic signs included probe tenderness (p < 0.001) and peri-appendiceal echogenic fat (p < 0.001). Sonographic signs suggesting CA over SA comprised a diameter > 10.1 mm (AUC 0.63, [95% CI: 0.57-0.69]), an appendicolith (p = 0.003) and peri-appendiceal fluid (p = 0.004). CONCLUSION: Presence of specific sonographic signs can aid diagnosis and differentiation of simple and complicated appendicitis in children.

Tissue adhesive, adhesive tape, and sutures for skin closure of paediatric surgical wounds: prospective randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Tissue adhesive, adhesive tape, and sutures are used to close surgical incisions. However, it is unclear which produces the best results in children, and whether combination wound closure is better than sutures alone. METHODS: In this parallel randomised controlled trial (ANZCTR: ACTRN12617000158369), children (aged 18 years or less) undergoing elective general surgical or urological procedures were randomized to skin closure with sutures alone, sutures and adhesive tape, or sutures and tissue adhesive. Participants were assessed 2 weeks, 6 weeks, and more than 6 months after operation. Outcomes included wound cosmesis (clinician- and parent-rated) assessed using four validated scales, parental satisfaction, and wound complication rates. RESULTS: 295 patients (333 wounds) were recruited and 277 patients (314 wounds) were included in the analysis. Tissue adhesive wounds had poorer cosmesis at 6 weeks: median 10-point VAS score 7.7 with sutures alone, 7.5 with adhesive tape, and 7.0 with tissue adhesive (P = 0.014). Respective median scores on a 100-point VAS were 80.0, 77.2, and 73.8 (P = 0.010). This difference was not sustained at over 6 months. There was no difference in parent-rated wound cosmesis at 6 weeks (P = 0.690) and more than 6 months (P = 0.167): median score 9.0 with sutures alone, 10.0 with adhesive tape, and 10.0 with tissue adhesive at both stages. Parental satisfaction was similar at all points, with a median score of 5 (very satisfied) for all groups. There was one instance of wound dehiscence in the tissue adhesive group and no wound infections. CONCLUSION: Short-term wound cosmesis was poorer with tissue adhesive although it is unclear whether this difference is sustained in the long-term. There were no differences between techniques for the study outcomes. REGISTRATION NUMBER: ACTRN12617000158369 (ANZCTR) (https://anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=372177&isReview=true).

Criteria-led discharge for simple appendicitis in children: A pilot study.

AIM: Criteria-led discharge (CLD) protocols have been suggested to increase efficiency of discharge from hospital following surgical interventions. Our aim was to assess the feasibility, clinical outcomes and parental satisfaction following the introduction of a pilot CLD for simple appendicitis (SA) in children. METHODS: A prospective pilot cohort study was conducted including paediatric patients with SA who were managed with CLD and a control group who were managed with standard discharge procedures. A CLD pro forma was developed, standardising care guidelines and clinical criteria indicators to be met for children to be discharged post-operatively. A post-discharge parent survey was also utilised. The primary outcome measure was post-operative length of stay (pLOS), with secondary outcomes of post-operative complication rates and parental satisfaction. RESULTS: The control group consisted of 31 patients and CLD group 35 patients. There was no difference in the median pLOS (24 [16.7-44.6] vs. 25.3 [19.1-50.1] h, P = 0.3). Furthermore, there were no significant differences on any of the secondary outcomes. Parental confidence with time of discharge was very high in both control (85.7%) and CLD (88.2%) groups (P = 1.0). CONCLUSION: The introduction of CLD is safe and feasible. Whilst this pilot has not demonstrated a reduction in pLOS, our data suggest that it is well accepted by the parents.

Decade of the dangers of multiple magnet ingestion in children: A retrospective review.

AIM: Magnet ingestion has become more frequent in children as magnetic toys and jewellery have been popularised, with the potential to cause significant morbidity. Our aim was to describe our experience at a tertiary paediatric surgical centre. METHODS: Retrospective review of patients admitted with multiple magnet ingestion (January 2011-December 2020). Division into an intervention group and conservative group. Comparisons included demographics, number of magnets and clinical outcomes. Data analysis with a Student's t-test and ROC Curve, P value of <0.05 was significant. RESULTS: A total of 23 patients were identified with a total of 150 magnets ingested. The majority required an intervention for magnets retrieval (15/23, 65.2%), 11/15 (73.3%) surgical and 4/15 (26.7%) endoscopic. In the surgery group, 6/11 (54%) presented with an initial perforation and 1/11 (9.1%) an entero-enteric fistula. One patient (9.1%) had a multi-site anastomotic leak post-operatively. The conservative group had a significantly lower median number of ingested magnets (2 (2-6) vs. 7 (2-40), P = 0.03) and median length of stay (1 (1-4) vs. 7 (1-24), P = 0.03). ROC curve analysis revealed ingestion of >3 magnets had a sensitivity of 86.7% (95% CI: 62.1-97.6%) and specificity of 87.5% (95% CI: 53.0-99.4%) for requiring an intervention. CONCLUSION: This series highlights a significant morbidity in children with a higher incidence of intervention following ingestion of more than three magnets. There is a strong requirement for the creation and adherence to new legislature involving industry standards.

Factors affecting mechanical complications of central venous access devices in children.

PURPOSE: Factors leading to mechanical complications following insertion of central venous access devices (CVADs) in children are poorly understood. We aimed to quantify the rates and elucidate the mechanisms of these complications. METHODS: Retrospective (2016-2021) review of children (< 18 years old) receiving a CVAD. Data, reported as number of cases (%) and median (IQR), were analysed by Fisher's exact test, chi-squared test and logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: In total, 317 CVADs (245 children) were inserted. Median age was 5.0 (8.9) years, with 116 (47%) females. There were 226 (71%) implantable port devices and 91 (29%) Hickman lines. Overall, 54 (17%) lines had a mechanical complication after 0.4 (0.83) years from insertion: fracture 19 (6%), CVAD migration 14 (4.4%), occlusion 14 (4.4%), port displacement 6 (1.9%), and skin tethering to port device 1 (0.3%). Younger age and lower weight were associated with higher risk of complications (p < 0.0001). Hickman lines had a higher incidence of complications compared to implantable port devices [24/91 (26.3%) vs 30/226 (13.3%); p = 0.008]. CONCLUSION: Mechanical complications occur in 17% of CVADs at a median of < 6 months after insertion. Risk factors include younger age and lower weight. Implantable port devices have a lower complications rate. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 4: case-series with no comparison group.

Assessment of Core Surgical Skills Using a Mixed Reality Headset - The MoTOR Study.

INTRODUCTION: Surgical skill assessment utilises direct observation and feedback by an expert which is potentially subjective, therefore obtaining objective data for hand and eye tracking is essential. Our aim was to evaluate a wearable mixed reality (MR) headset in these domains. METHODS: Participants with differing levels of surgical expertise [novice (N), intermediate (I) & expert (E)] performed 4 simulated surgical tasks; 2 general dexterity (tasks 1&2) and 2 surgical skills (tasks 3&4) wearing the MR headset capturing their hand and eye movements (median & range). Metrics included hand path length and the speed of each index or thumb tip. Gaze data were also captured. Participant demographics, prior expertise and current experience were captured with an electronic survey. Data were analysed with a Shapiro-Wilk test or ANOVA as appropriate. A p-value of < 0.05 was significant. RESULTS: Thirty-six participants were analysed (N = 18, I = 8, E = 8). Tasks 1&2 revealed 2 speed outcomes (left index and left-hand speed) which were significant. For tasks 3&4, various outcomes were significant: path length for left hand (N:45 cm vs. I:31 cm vs. E:27 cm, p = 0.03) and right hand (N:48 cm vs. I:29 cm vs. E:28 cm, p = 0.01) and total time (N:456s vs. I:292 vs. E: 245, p = 0.0002). With left-hand-tying, average path length (N:61 cm vs. I:39 vs. E:36, p = 0.04), average speed (N:11 cm/s vs. I:23 vs. E:24, p = 0.03), and total time (N:156s vs. I:43 vs. E:37, p = 0.003) were significant. The gaze-tracking was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The MR headset can be utilised as a valid tool for surgical performance assessment. Outcomes including path length and speed can be valuable metrics captured by the MR Headset during the task completion for detecting surgical proficiency.

Effect of the COVID-19 induced phase of massive telehealth uptake on end-user satisfaction.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 has resulted in a massive increase in telehealth utilisation. AIMS: To determine the user and clinician satisfaction during this period and compare to a pre-COVID-19 cohort. METHODS: A prospectively collected voluntary questionnaire following the telehealth appointment at a tertiary-level hospital with all adult and paediatric-based specialities was conducted over two time periods: COVID-19 (16 March 2020 to 15 April 2020) and pre-COVID-19 (1 January 2019 to 31 December 2019). There were four groups of participants: patients; parents; adult-based clinicians; and paediatric-based clinicians. The outcomes assessed included perceived standard of care, willingness for repeat telehealth consultations, and patient and parental perceptions of safety. RESULTS: Five thousand and thirty-three telehealth consultations occurred in the COVID-19 period with 1757 questionnaires completed, compared to 1917 consultations with 271 questionnaires completed in the pre-COVID-19 period. Clinicians were more likely to have previously used telehealth in both time periods than end-users. In COVID-19, 1240 actual onsite hospital outpatients' visits were prevented. All groups reported a good overall impression of the telehealth quality; patients/parents scored higher compared to clinicians: 3.6/4 versus 3.3/4, P = 0.02 (pre-COVID-19) and 3.3/4 versus 2.8/4, P = 0.001 (COVID-19). The majority of patients and parents (90%, 1379/1528) felt safer by having a telehealth appointment compared to a face-to-face appointment in the COVID-19 pandemic. All participant groups reported an overall good standard of care, good levels of engagement and were strongly willing to use telehealth again in both of the study time periods. Patients and parents consistently rated higher than clinicians. CONCLUSIONS: During a rapid increase in its utilisation and scope due to the COVID-19 pandemic, telehealth was generally well accepted by patients, parents and clinicians, which was consistent with pre-COVID-19 experiences.

Radiation burden in patients with esophageal atresia: a systematic review.

Esophageal atresia (EA) is the most common congenital esophageal disorder. Radiological imaging facilitates diagnosis, surgical interventions, and follow-up. Despite this, standardized monitoring guidelines are lacking. We aimed to: (1) review the literature regarding radiation burden in children with EA; (2) establish the presence of guidelines for diagnosis and follow-up in children with EA. The systematic review was performed according to PRISMA protocol. Two investigators conducted independent searches (PubMed, Ovid, Cochrane Review) and data extraction. Analysis focused on pre- and post-operative imaging type and frequency to determine the radiation burden. Seven studies met the inclusion criteria (337 patients). All authors agreed upon the need to minimize radiation burden, recommending symptoms-guided management, use of dosimeters, and non-radiating imaging. One study identified a median 130-fold increase in cumulative lifetime cancer risk in children with EA compared with other babies in the special care unit. The most common investigations were X-ray and CT (pre-operatively), and X-ray and contrast swallow (post-operatively). Standardized guidelines focused upon the frequency and type of radiological imaging for children with EA are lacking. Children with EA are subjected to more radiation exposure than the general population. Implementation of non-radiating imaging (ultrasonography, manometry) is recommended.

Are Postoperative Intravenous Antibiotics Indicated After Laparoscopic Appendicectomy for Simple Appendicitis? A Prospective Double-blinded Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: There is limited evidence for the use of postoperative antibiotics for simple appendicitis (SA) in children. Our aim was to conduct a prospective double-blinded randomized controlled trial to investigate this after a laparoscopic appendicectomy. METHODS: Following ethical approval, children (≤16 years) undergoing appendicectomy were recruited at a single institution. Patients were randomized intraoperatively to receive either 2 postoperative intravenous doses of placebo or antibiotics (Abx). All patients received a dose of Abx at induction of anesthesia. Primary outcome was the incidence of postoperative wound infection (WI), and secondary outcome was the incidence of intra-abdominal abscess formation. Data are reported as number of cases (%), median (range), relative risk, and analyzed using Mann Whitney U test, Chi-square test, as appropriate, a P-value ≤0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: A total of 304 patients were randomized. Sixty-one were subsequently excluded due to protocol violations or recruitment errors; therefore, 243 were included in the final analysis. One hundred twenty-two patients received placebo and 121 Intravenous Abx. There was no difference between the sex (50F/72 M vs 47F/74 M, P = 0.8), median age (12.4 vs 12.2 years, P = 0.5), and postoperative length of stay in a hospital (27.2 vs 25.6 hours, P = 0.7). There was also no difference in the preoperative blood results. A total of 9 WIs occurred: 8/122 (6.6%) placebo versus 1/121 (0.8%) Abx, P = 0.01 [relative risk for WI 7.9 (95% confidence interval: 1.0-62.4)]. There were no intra-abdominal abscess in either groups. CONCLUSIONS: This prospective randomized double blinded randomized controlled trial has revealed a significant decrease in WI rates by giving 2 postoperative intravenous doses of Abx, suggesting postoperative Abx are of benefit in SA.

Incidence of gastro-intestinal anomalies and surgical outcome of fetuses diagnosed with echogenic bowel and bowel dilatation.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to evaluate the incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) anomalies and surgical outcome in fetuses diagnosed with either echogenic bowel (EB) or EB plus bowel dilatation (BD) but no associated chromosomal, DNA and/or additional structural defects. METHODS: A 10-year (2008-2018) retrospective review was performed on all fetuses diagnosed with EB and EB+BD (RES-18-0000-072Q). Results are reported as number of cases (%) and mean ±SD. Fisher's exact test, Mann-Whitney U test and logistic regression were used to identify differences between groups and predisposing factors for gastro-intestinal anomalies. RESULTS: We identified 41 fetuses with EB and 14 fetuses with EB+BD. Post-natal surgical intervention was required in no patient of the EB group and in 7/14 (50%) of the EB+BD group, p<0.001. The risk of having a GI anomaly was higher in the EB+BD group (RR 42.0 [2.5-691.6]; p=0.009). Advanced maternal age (p=0.04), ascites (p=0.006) and polyhydramnios (p=0.007) were associated with a higher incidence of GI pathology. CONCLUSIONS: In fetuses with no associated chromosomal, DNA and/or additional structural defects, the finding of EB+BD is associated with 50% incidence of GI anomalies at birth. Advanced maternal age, ascites and polyhydramnios are also associated with higher incidence of GI pathology at birth.

Presentation and outcomes in hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: An 11-year review.

AIM: To evaluate the trend in presentation and postoperative outcomes of infants with hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (HPS) over the last decade. METHODS: This was a multicentre retrospective study in two tertiary paediatric centres between 2005 and 2015 inclusive. Participants included 626 infants who underwent a pyloromyotomy for HPS. We collected data on presentation features (age, weight, clinical signs, blood gas results, ultrasound findings) and postoperative outcomes (length of stay (LOS), complications, time to first postoperative feed). RESULTS: No trend was identified during the study period with regards to age, weight, biochemical findings (pH, chloride, base excess) or pre-operative ultrasound measurements. There was a downtrend in the number of palpated tumours over time, with a mean of 36% of tumours clinically palpated. Pyloric wall thickness had a moderate association with LOS in patients admitted for >8 days (correlation = 0.4752) but had a weak negative association with shorter lengths of stay (≤8 day, correlation = -0.094). Overall, median time to first feed was 7.80 h and improved yearly during the study period (hazard ratio = 1.07). CONCLUSIONS: Patients presenting with HPS are not being identified at an earlier age or with fewer biochemical derangements, in contrast to our initial perceptions. Subsequently, biochemical derangements can still play an important role in the diagnosis of HPS, and attention needs to be given to fluid management and electrolyte correction in all patients with HPS.

Circumcision in the paediatric patient: A review of indications, technique and complications.

Circumcision is one of the most commonly performed surgical procedures in the world. Despite this, the practice of paediatric circumcision remains highly controversial, and continues to generate ongoing debate. This debate has become more relevant recently with the provisional guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommending a change of practice. In this review article, we provide an overview of the history and incidence of circumcision, normal preputial development, types of phimosis, the absolute and relative indications for circumcision as well as the evidence base for its use as a preventative measure. Our aim is to provide paediatricians with a greater understanding of this common surgical procedure and the conditions it treats, to guide their clinical practice and parent counselling.

Can common serum biomarkers predict complicated appendicitis in children?

PURPOSE: As appendicitis in children can be managed differently according to the severity of the disease, we investigated whether commonly used serum biomarkers on admission could distinguish between simple and complicated appendicitis. METHODS: Admission white blood cell (WBC), neutrophil (NEU), and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were analysed by ROC curve, and Kruskal-Wallis and contingency tests. Patients were divided according to age and histology [normal appendix (NA), simple appendicitis (SA), complicated appendicitis (CA)]. RESULTS: Of 1197 children (NA = 186, SA = 685, CA = 326), 7% were <5 years, 55% 5-12, 38% 13-17. CA patients had higher CRP and WBC levels than NA and SA (p < 0.0001). NEU levels were lower in NA compared to SA or CA (p < 0.0001), but were similar between SA and CA (p = 0.6). CA patients had higher CRP and WBC levels than SA patients in 5-12- (p < 0.0001) and 13-17-year groups (p = 0.0075, p = 0.005), but not in <5-year group (p = 0.72, p = 0.81). We found CRP >40 mg/L in 58% CA and 37% SA (p < 0.0001), and WBC >15 × 109/L in 58% CA and 43% SA (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Admission CRP and WBC levels may help the clinician predict complicated appendicitis in children older than 5 years of age. Early distinction of appendicitis severity using these tests may guide caregivers in the preoperative decision-making process.

Newborn and Infant Parasympathetic Evaluation (NIPE™) Monitor for Assessing Pain During Surgery and Interventional Procedures: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: The heart rate variability-derived Newborn Infant Parasympathetic Evaluation (NIPE) monitor has been designed to be an objective, non-invasive tool for the assessment of pain and discomfort in children under 2 years of age. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the ability of NIPE to assess pain in neonates and infants during surgical and/or painful procedures. METHODS: A systematic review (2010-2023) was conducted using PRISMA guidelines. Studies containing children above 2-years-old were excluded. The ROBINS-I (Risk of Bias in Non-randomised Studies of Interventions) tool was used to assess the quality of included studies. RESULTS: 9 databases were searched identifying 470 articles, 460 did not meet the inclusion criteria and were excluded; therefore, 10 studies with 548 participants were included. NIPE was used to assess intraoperative and postoperative pain for surgery under general anaesthesia (5 studies), as well as acute and prolonged pain from other interventional procedures (5 studies). For surgery under general anaesthesia: NIPE has shown to detect nociceptive events (e.g., skin incision, intubation), insufficient analgesia intraoperatively and to predict early postoperative pain. For painful interventional procedures: NIPE has shown to detect acute pain with a high sensitivity and negative predictive value. CONCLUSION: NIPE has been used to assess pain in surgery and for various painful procedures. NIPE can detect intraoperative pain and reflect early postoperative pain. NIPE may be useful in evaluating procedural pain, however with heterogenous outcomes, more studies are required to confirm its efficacy. TYPE OF STUDY: Systematic Review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

A guide to outcome evaluation of simulation-based education programmes in low and middle-income countries.

Evaluation is a vital part of any learning activity and is essential to optimize and improve educational programmes. It should be considered and prioritized prior to the implementation of any learning activity. However, comprehensive programme evaluation is rarely conducted, and there are numerous barriers to high-quality evaluation. This review provides a framework for conducting outcome evaluation of simulation-based education programmes in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). The basis of evaluation, including core ideas of theory, purpose and structure are outlined, followed by an examination of the levels and healthcare applications of the Kirkpatrick model of evaluation. Then, methods of conducting evaluation of simulation-based education in LMICs are discussed through the lens of a successful surgical simulation programme in Myanmar, a lower-middle-income country. The programme involved the evaluation of 11 courses over 4 years in Myanmar and demonstrated evaluation at the highest level of the Kirkpatrick model. Reviewing this programme provides a bridge between evaluation theory and practical implementation. A range of evaluation methods are outlined, including surveys, interviews, and clinical outcome measurement. The importance of a mixed-methods approach, enabling triangulation of quantitative and qualitative analysis, is highlighted, as are methods of analysing data, including statistical and thematic analysis. Finally, issues and challenges of conducting evaluation are considered, as well as strategies to overcome these barriers. Ultimately, this review informs readers about evaluation theory and methods, grounded in a practical application, to enable other educators in low-resource settings to evaluate their own activities.