Spatial distribution of trace metals and associated transport proteins during bacterial infection.

Innate immune systems alter the concentrations of trace elements in host niches in response to invading pathogens during infection. This work reports the interplay between d-block metal ions and their associated biomolecules using hyphenated elemental techniques to spatially quantify both elemental distributions and the abundance of specific transport proteins. Here, lung tissues were collected for analyses from naïve and Streptococcus pneumoniae-infected mice fed on a zinc-restricted or zinc-supplemented diet. Spatiotemporal distributions of manganese (55Mn), iron (56Fe), copper (63Cu), and zinc (66Zn) were determined by quantitative laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The murine transport proteins ZIP8 and ZIP14, which are associated with zinc transport, were also imaged by incorporation of immunohistochemistry techniques into the analytical workflow. Collectively, this work demonstrates the potential of a single instrumental platform suitable for multiplex analyses of tissues and labelled antibodies to investigate complex elemental interactions at the host-pathogen interface. Further, these methods have the potential for broad application to investigations of biological pathways where concomitant measurement of elements and biomolecules is crucial to understand the basis of disease and aid in development of new therapeutic approaches.

Dietary zinc and the control of Streptococcus pneumoniae infection.

Human zinc deficiency increases susceptibility to bacterial infection. Although zinc supplementation therapies can reduce the impact of disease, the molecular basis for protection remains unclear. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major cause of bacterial pneumonia, which is prevalent in regions of zinc deficiency. We report that dietary zinc levels dictate the outcome of S. pneumoniae infection in a murine model. Dietary zinc restriction impacts murine tissue zinc levels with distribution post-infection altered, and S. pneumoniae virulence and infection enhanced. Although the activation and infiltration of murine phagocytic cells was not affected by zinc restriction, their efficacy of bacterial control was compromised. S. pneumoniae was shown to be highly sensitive to zinc intoxication, with this process impaired in zinc restricted mice and isolated phagocytic cells. Collectively, these data show how dietary zinc deficiency increases sensitivity to S. pneumoniae infection while revealing a role for zinc as a component of host antimicrobial defences.

Intracellular Accumulation of Staphylopine Can Sensitize Staphylococcus aureus to Host-Imposed Zinc Starvation by Chelation-Independent Toxicity.

The host restricts the availability of zinc to prevent infection. To overcome this defense, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa rely on zincophore-dependent zinc importers. Synthesis of the zincophore staphylopine by S. aureus and its import are both necessary for the bacterium to cause infection. In this study, we sought to elucidate how loss of zincophore efflux impacts bacterial resistance to host-imposed zinc starvation. In culture and during infection, mutants lacking CntE, the staphylopine efflux pump, were more sensitive to zinc starvation imposed by the metal-binding immune effector calprotectin than those lacking the ability to import staphylopine. However, disruption of staphylopine synthesis reversed the enhanced sensitivity phenotype of the ΔcntE mutant to calprotectin, indicating that intracellular toxicity of staphylopine is more detrimental than the impaired ability to acquire zinc. Unexpectedly, intracellular accumulation of staphylopine does not increase the expression of metal importers or alter cellular metal concentrations, suggesting that, contrary to prevailing models, the toxicity associated with staphylopine is not strictly due to intracellular chelation of metals. As P. aeruginosa and other pathogens produce zincophores with similar chemistry, our observations on the crucial importance of zincophore efflux are likely to be broadly relevant.IMPORTANCEStaphylococcus aureus and many other bacterial pathogens rely on metal-binding small molecules to obtain the essential metal zinc during infection. In this study, we reveal that export of these small molecules is critical for overcoming host-imposed metal starvation during infection and prevents toxicity due to accumulation of the metal-binding molecule within the cell. Surprisingly, we found that intracellular toxicity of the molecule is not due to chelation of cellular metals.

Disruption of Phosphate Homeostasis Sensitizes Staphylococcus aureus to Nutritional Immunity.

To control infection, mammals actively withhold essential nutrients, including the transition metal manganese, by a process termed nutritional immunity. A critical component of this host response is the manganese-chelating protein calprotectin. While many bacterial mechanisms for overcoming nutritional immunity have been identified, the intersection between metal starvation and other essential inorganic nutrients has not been investigated. Here, we report that overexpression of an operon encoding a highly conserved inorganic phosphate importer, PstSCAB, increases the sensitivity of Staphylococcus aureus to calprotectin-mediated manganese sequestration. Further analysis revealed that overexpression of pstSCAB does not disrupt manganese acquisition or result in overaccumulation of phosphate by S. aureus However, it does reduce the ability of S. aureus to grow in phosphate-replete defined medium. Overexpression of pstSCAB does not aberrantly activate the phosphate-responsive two-component system PhoPR, nor was this two-component system required for sensitivity to manganese starvation. In a mouse model of systemic staphylococcal disease, a pstSCAB-overexpressing strain is significantly attenuated compared to wild-type S. aureus This defect is partially reversed in a calprotectin-deficient mouse, in which manganese is more readily available. Given that expression of pstSCAB is regulated by PhoPR, these findings suggest that overactivation of PhoPR would diminish the ability of S. aureus to resist nutritional immunity and cause infection. As PhoPR is also necessary for bacterial virulence, these findings imply that phosphate homeostasis represents a critical regulatory node whose activity must be precisely controlled in order for S. aureus and other pathogens to cause infection.

Structure and Metal Binding Properties of Chlamydia trachomatis YtgA.

The obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis is a globally significant cause of sexually transmitted bacterial infections and the leading etiological agent of preventable blindness. The first-row transition metal iron (Fe) plays critical roles in chlamydial cell biology, and acquisition of this nutrient is essential for the survival and virulence of the pathogen. Nevertheless, how C. trachomatis acquires Fe from host cells is not well understood, since it lacks genes encoding known siderophore biosynthetic pathways, receptors for host Fe storage proteins, and the Fe acquisition machinery common to many bacteria. Recent studies have suggested that C. trachomatis directly acquires host Fe via the ATP-binding cassette permease YtgABCD. Here, we characterized YtgA, the periplasmic solute binding protein component of the transport pathway, which has been implicated in scavenging Fe(III) ions. The structure of Fe(III)-bound YtgA was determined at 2.0-Å resolution with the bound ion coordinated via a novel geometry (3 Ns, 2 Os [3N2O]). This unusual coordination suggested a highly plastic metal binding site in YtgA capable of interacting with other cations. Biochemical analyses showed that the metal binding site of YtgA was not restricted to interaction with only Fe(III) ions but could bind all transition metal ions examined. However, only Mn(II), Fe(II), and Ni(II) ions bound reversibly to YtgA, with Fe being the most abundant cellular transition metal in C. trachomatis Collectively, these findings show that YtgA is the metal-recruiting component of the YtgABCD permease and is most likely involved in the acquisition of Fe(II) and Mn(II) from host cells.IMPORTANCEChlamydia trachomatis is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in developed countries, with an estimated global prevalence of 4.2% in the 15- to 49-year age group. Although infection is asymptomatic in more than 80% of infected women, about 10% of cases result in serious disease. Infection by C. trachomatis is dependent on the ability to acquire essential nutrients, such as the transition metal iron, from host cells. In this study, we show that iron is the most abundant transition metal in C. trachomatis and report the structural and biochemical properties of the iron-recruiting protein YtgA. Knowledge of the high-resolution structure of YtgA will provide a platform for future structure-based antimicrobial design approaches.

Hfe Permease and Haemophilus influenzae Manganese Homeostasis.

Haemophilus influenzae is a commensal of the human upper respiratory tract that can infect diverse host niches due, at least in part, to its ability to withstand both endogenous and host-mediated oxidative stresses. Here, we show that hfeA, a gene previously linked to iron import, is essential for H. influenzae manganese recruitment via the HfeBCD transporter. Structural analyses show that metal binding in HfeA uses a unique mechanism that involves substantial rotation of the C-terminal lobe of the protein. Disruption of hfeA reduced H. influenzae manganese acquisition and was associated with decreased growth under aerobic conditions, impaired manganese-superoxide dismutase activity, reduced survival in macrophages, and changes in biofilm production in the presence of superoxide. Collectively, this work shows that HfeA contributes to H. influenzae manganese acquisition and virulence attributes. High conservation of the hfeABCD permease in Haemophilus species suggests that it may serve similar roles in other pathogenic Pasteurellaceae.

The role of CopA in Streptococcus pyogenes copper homeostasis and virulence.

Maintenance of intracellular metal homeostasis during interaction with host niches is critical to the success of bacterial pathogens. To prevent infection, the mammalian innate immune response employs metal-withholding and metal-intoxication mechanisms to limit bacterial propagation. The first-row transition metal ion copper serves critical roles at the host-pathogen interface and has been associated with antimicrobial activity since antiquity. Despite lacking any known copper-utilizing proteins, streptococci have been reported to accumulate significant levels of copper. Here, we report that loss of CopA, a copper-specific exporter, confers increased sensitivity to copper in Streptococcus pyogenes strain HSC5, with prolonged exposure to physiological levels of copper resulting in reduced viability during stationary phase cultivation. This defect in stationary phase survival was rescued by supplementation with exogeneous amino acids, indicating the pathogen had altered nutritional requirements during exposure to copper stress. Furthermore, S. pyogenes HSC5 ΔcopA was substantially attenuated during murine soft-tissue infection, demonstrating the importance of copper efflux at the host-pathogen interface. Collectively, these data indicate that copper can severely reduce the viability of stationary phase S. pyogenes and that active efflux mechanisms are required to survive copper stress in vitro and during infection.

Host subversion of bacterial metallophore usage drives copper intoxication.

Microorganisms can acquire metal ions in metal-limited environments using small molecules called metallophores. While metals and their importers are essential, metals can also be toxic, and metallophores have limited ability to discriminate metals. The impact of the metallophore-mediated non-cognate metal uptake on bacterial metal homeostasis and pathogenesis remains to be defined. The globally significant pathogen Staphylococcus aureus uses the Cnt system to secrete the metallophore staphylopine in zinc-limited host niches. Here, we show that staphylopine and the Cnt system facilitate bacterial copper uptake, potentiating the need for copper detoxification. During in vivo infection, staphylopine usage increased S. aureus susceptibility to host-mediated copper stress, indicating that the innate immune response can harness the antimicrobial potential of altered elemental abundances in host niches. Collectively, these observations show that while the broad-spectrum metal-chelating properties of metallophores can be advantageous, the host can exploit these properties to drive metal intoxication and mediate antibacterial control. IMPORTANCE: During infection bacteria must overcome the dual threats of metal starvation and intoxication. This work reveals that the zinc-withholding response of the host sensitizes Staphylococcus aureus to copper intoxication. In response to zinc starvation S. aureus utilizes the metallophore staphylopine. The current work revealed that the host can leverage the promiscuity of staphylopine to intoxicate S. aureus during infection. Significantly, staphylopine-like metallophores are produced by a wide range of pathogens, suggesting that this is a conserved weakness that the host can leverage to toxify invaders with copper. Moreover, it challenges the assumption that the broad-spectrum metal binding of metallophores is inherently beneficial to bacteria.

Integrated Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Mapping Reveals the Mechanism of Action of Ceftazidime/Avibactam against Pan-Drug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Here, we employed an integrated metabolomics and transcriptomics approach to investigate the molecular mechanism(s) of action of ceftazidime/avibactam against a pan-drug-resistant K. pneumoniae clinical isolate from a patient with urinary tract infection. Ceftazidime/avibactam induced time-dependent perturbations in the metabolome and transcriptome of the bacterium, mainly at 6 h, with minimal effects at 1 and 3 h. Metabolomics analysis revealed a notable reduction in essential lipids involved in outer membrane glycerolipid biogenesis. This disruption effect extended to peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide biosynthetic pathways, including lipid A and O-antigen assembly. Importantly, ceftazidime/avibactam not only affected the final steps of peptidoglycan biosynthesis in the periplasm, a common mechanism of ceftazidime action, but also influenced the synthesis of lipid-linked intermediates and early stages of cytoplasmic peptidoglycan synthesis. Furthermore, ceftazidime/avibactam substantially inhibited central carbon metabolism (e.g., the pentose phosphate pathway and tricarboxylic acid cycle). Consistently, the dysregulation of genes governing these metabolic pathways aligned with the metabolomics findings. Certain metabolomics and transcriptomics signatures associated with ceftazidime resistance were also perturbed. Consistent with the primary target of antibiotic activity, biochemical assays also confirmed the direct impact of ceftazidime/avibactam on peptidoglycan production. This study explored the intricate interactions of ceftazidime and avibactam within bacterial cells, including their impact on cell envelope biogenesis and central carbon metabolism. Our findings revealed the complexities of how ceftazidime/avibactam operates, such as hindering peptidoglycan formation in different cellular compartments. In summary, this study confirms the existing hypotheses about the antibacterial and resistance mechanisms of ceftazidime/avibactam while uncovering novel insights, including its impact on lipopolysaccharide formation.

Host subversion of bacterial metallophore usage drives copper intoxication.

IMPORTANCE: During infection, bacteria must overcome the dual threats of metal starvation and intoxication. This work reveals that the zinc-withholding response of the host sensitizes S. aureus to copper intoxication. In response to zinc starvation, S. aureus utilizes the metallophore staphylopine. The current work revealed that the host can leverage the promiscuity of staphylopine to intoxicate S. aureus during infection. Significantly, staphylopine-like metallophores are produced by a wide range of pathogens, suggesting that this is a conserved weakness that the host can leverage to toxify invaders with copper. Moreover, it challenges the assumption that the broad-spectrum metal binding of metallophores is inherently beneficial to bacteria.

Zinc acquisition and its contribution to Klebsiella pneumoniae virulence.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is a World Health Organization priority pathogen and a significant clinical concern for infections of the respiratory and urinary tracts due to widespread and increasing resistance to antimicrobials. In the absence of a vaccine, there is an urgent need to identify novel targets for therapeutic development. Bacterial pathogens, including K. pneumoniae, require the d-block metal ion zinc as an essential micronutrient, which serves as a cofactor for ~6% of the proteome. During infection, zinc acquisition necessitates the use of high affinity uptake systems to overcome niche-specific zinc limitation and host-mediated nutritional immunity. Here, we report the identification of ZnuCBA and ZniCBA, two ATP-binding cassette permeases that are highly conserved in Klebsiella species and contribute to K. pneumoniae AJ218 zinc homeostasis, and the high-resolution structure of the zinc-recruiting solute-binding protein ZniA. The Znu and Zni permeases appear functionally redundant with abrogation of both systems required to reduce K. pneumoniae zinc accumulation. Disruption of both systems also exerted pleiotropic effects on the homeostasis of other d-block elements. Zinc limitation perturbed K. pneumoniae cell morphology and compromised resistance to stressors, such as salt and oxidative stress. The mutant strain lacking both systems showed significantly impaired virulence in acute lung infection models, highlighting the necessity of zinc acquisition in the virulence and pathogenicity of K. pneumoniae.

The two-component system WalKR provides an essential link between cell wall homeostasis and DNA replication in Staphylococcus aureus.

Among the 16 two-component systems in the opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, only WalKR is essential. Like the orthologous systems in other Bacillota, S. aureus WalKR controls autolysins involved in peptidoglycan remodeling and is therefore intimately involved in cell division. However, despite the importance of WalKR in S. aureus, the basis for its essentiality is not understood and the regulon is poorly defined. Here, we defined a consensus WalR DNA-binding motif and the direct WalKR regulon by using functional genomics, including chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing, with a panel of isogenic walKR mutants that had a spectrum of altered activities. Consistent with prior findings, the direct regulon includes multiple autolysin genes. However, this work also revealed that WalR directly regulates at least five essential genes involved in lipoteichoic acid synthesis (ltaS): translation (rplK), DNA compaction (hup), initiation of DNA replication (dnaA, hup) and purine nucleotide metabolism (prs). Thus, WalKR in S. aureus serves as a polyfunctional regulator that contributes to fundamental control over critical cell processes by coordinately linking cell wall homeostasis with purine biosynthesis, protein biosynthesis, and DNA replication. Our findings further address the essentiality of this locus and highlight the importance of WalKR as a bona fide target for novel anti-staphylococcal therapeutics. IMPORTANCE The opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus uses an array of protein sensing systems called two-component systems (TCS) to sense environmental signals and adapt its physiology in response by regulating different genes. This sensory network is key to S. aureus versatility and success as a pathogen. Here, we reveal for the first time the full extent of the regulatory network of WalKR, the only staphylococcal TCS that is indispensable for survival under laboratory conditions. We found that WalKR is a master regulator of cell growth, coordinating the expression of genes from multiple, fundamental S. aureus cellular processes, including those involved in maintaining cell wall metabolism, protein biosynthesis, nucleotide metabolism, and the initiation of DNA replication.

MntP and YiiP Contribute to Manganese Efflux in Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium under Conditions of Manganese Overload and Nitrosative Stress.

The divalent transition metal cation manganese is important for protein function, particularly under conditions of iron limitation, nitrosative stress, and oxidative stress, but can mediate substantial toxicity in excess. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium possesses multiple manganese importers, but the pathways for manganese efflux remain poorly defined. The S. Typhimurium ATCC 14028s genome was analyzed for putative manganese export pathways, which identified a previously uncharacterized homologue of the Escherichia coli manganese exporter mntP, stm1834, and two cation diffusion facilitator family transporters, zitB (stm0758) and yiiP (stm4061). Manganese acquisition by S. Typhimurium has been shown to occur in response to nitric oxide, an important chemical mediator of the mammalian innate immune response. However, cellular manganese can rapidly return to prechallenge levels, strongly suggesting that one or more S. Typhimurium exporters may contribute to this process. Here, we report that mntP and yiiP contribute to manganese resistance and export in S. Typhimurium. YiiP, also known as FieF, has previously been associated with zinc and iron transport, although its physiological role remains ambiguous due to a lack of zinc-sensitive phenotypes in yiiP mutant strains of S. Typhimurium and E. coli. We report that S. Typhimurium ΔmntP ΔyiiP mutants are exquisitely sensitive to manganese and show that both YiiP and MntP contribute to manganese efflux following nitric oxide exposure. IMPORTANCE Transition metal cations are required for the function of many proteins but can mediate toxicity when present in excess. Identifying transporters that facilitate metal ion export, the conditions under which they are expressed, and the role they play in bacterial physiology is an evolving area of interest for environmental and pathogenic organisms. Determining the native targets of metal transporters has proved challenging since bioinformatic predictions, in vitro transport data, and mutant phenotypes do not always agree. This work identifies two transporters that mediate manganese efflux from the Gram-negative pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in response to manganese overload and nitric oxide stress. While homologues of MntP have been characterized previously, this is the first observation of YiiP contributing to manganese export.

The Role of ZntA in Klebsiella pneumoniae Zinc Homeostasis.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic Gram-negative pathogen that is a leading cause of healthcare-associated infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis. Essential to the colonization and infection by K. pneumoniae is the acquisition of nutrients, such as the transition metal ion zinc. Zinc has crucial structural and catalytic roles in the proteome of all organisms. Nevertheless, in excess, it has the potential to mediate significant toxicity by dysregulating the homeostasis of other transition elements, disrupting enzymatic processes, and perturbing metalloprotein cofactor acquisition. Here, we sought to elucidate the zinc detoxification mechanisms of K. pneumoniae, which remain poorly defined. Using the representative K. pneumoniae AJ218 strain, we showed that the P-type ATPase, ZntA, which is upregulated in response to cellular zinc stress, was the primary zinc efflux pathway. Deletion of zntA rendered K. pneumoniae AJ218 highly susceptible to exogenous zinc stress and manifested as an impaired growth phenotype and increased cellular accumulation of the metal. Loss of zntA also increased sensitivity to cadmium stress, indicating a role for this efflux pathway in cadmium resistance. Disruption of zinc homeostasis in the K. pneumoniae AJ218 ΔzntA strain also impacted manganese and iron homeostasis and was associated with increased production of biofilm. Collectively, this work showed the critical role of ZntA in K. pneumoniae zinc tolerance and provided a foundation for further studies on zinc homeostasis and the future development of novel antimicrobials to target this pathway. IMPORTANCE Klebsiella pneumoniae is a leading cause of healthcare-associated infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis. Treatment of K. pneumoniae infections is becoming increasingly challenging due to high levels of antibiotic resistance and the rising prevalence of carbapenem-resistant, extended-spectrum ß-lactamases producing strains. Zinc is essential to the colonization and infection by many bacterial pathogens but toxic in excess. This work described the first dissection of the pathways associated with resisting extracellular zinc stress in K. pneumoniae. This study revealed that the P-type ATPase ZntA was highly upregulated in response to exogenous zinc stress and played a major role in maintaining bacterial metal homeostasis. Knowledge of how this major bacterial pathogen resists zinc stress provided a foundation for antimicrobial development studies to target and abrogate their essential function.

Host-Mediated Copper Stress Is Not Protective against Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 Infection.

Metal ions are required by all organisms for the chemical processes that support life. However, in excess they can also exert toxicity within biological systems. During infection, bacterial pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae are exposed to host-imposed metal intoxication, where the toxic properties of metals, such as copper, are exploited to aid in microbial clearance. However, previous studies investigating the antimicrobial efficacy of copper in vivo have reported variable findings. Here, we use a highly copper-sensitive strain of S. pneumoniae, lacking both copper efflux and intracellular copper buffering by glutathione, to investigate how copper stress is managed and where it is encountered during infection. We show that this strain exhibits highly dysregulated copper homeostasis, leading to the attenuation of growth and hyperaccumulation of copper in vitro. In a murine infection model, whole-tissue copper quantitation and elemental bioimaging of the murine lung revealed that infection with S. pneumoniae resulted in increased copper abundance in specific tissues, with the formation of spatially discrete copper hot spots throughout the lung. While the increased copper was able to reduce the viability of the highly copper-sensitive strain in a pneumonia model, copper levels in professional phagocytes and in a bacteremic model were insufficient to prosecute bacterial clearance. Collectively, this study reveals that host copper is redistributed to sites of infection and can impact bacterial viability in a hypersusceptible strain. However, in wild-type S. pneumoniae, the concerted actions of the copper homeostatic mechanisms are sufficient to facilitate continued viability and virulence of the pathogen. IMPORTANCE Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is one of the world's foremost bacterial pathogens. Treatment of both localized and systemic pneumococcal infection is becoming complicated by increasing rates of multidrug resistance globally. Copper is a potent antimicrobial agent used by the mammalian immune system in the defense against bacterial pathogens. However, unlike other bacterial species, this copper stress is unable to prosecute pneumococcal clearance. This study determines how the mammalian host inflicts copper stress on S. pneumoniae and the bacterial copper tolerance mechanisms that contribute to maintenance of viability and virulence in vitro and in vivo. This work has provided insight into the chemical biology of the host-pneumococcal interaction and identified a potential avenue for novel antimicrobial development.

Dysregulation of Streptococcus pneumoniae zinc homeostasis breaks ampicillin resistance in a pneumonia infection model.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the primary cause of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia with rates of penicillin and multidrug-resistance exceeding 80% and 40%, respectively. The innate immune response generates a variety of antimicrobial agents to control infection, including zinc stress. Here, we characterize the impact of zinc intoxication on S. pneumoniae, observing disruptions in central carbon metabolism, lipid biogenesis, and peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Characterization of the pivotal peptidoglycan biosynthetic enzyme GlmU indicates a sensitivity to zinc inhibition. Disruption of the sole zinc efflux pathway, czcD, renders S. pneumoniae highly susceptible to ß-lactam antibiotics. To dysregulate zinc homeostasis in the wild-type strain, we investigated the safe-for-human-use ionophore 5,7-dichloro-2-[(dimethylamino)methyl]quinolin-8-ol (PBT2). PBT2 rendered wild-type S. pneumoniae strains sensitive to a range of antibiotics. Using an invasive ampicillin-resistant strain, we demonstrate in a murine pneumonia infection model the efficacy of PBT2 + ampicillin treatment. These findings present a therapeutic modality to break antibiotic resistance in multidrug-resistant S. pneumoniae.

The biochemical fate of Ag+ ions in Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and biological media.

Silver is commonly included in a range of household and medical items to provide bactericidal action. Despite this, the chemical fate of the metal in both mammalian and bacterial systems remains poorly understood. Here, we applied a metallomics approach using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and size-exclusion chromatography hyphenated with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS) to advance our understanding of the biochemical fate of silver ions in bacterial culture and cells, and the chemistry associated with these interactions. When silver ions were added to lysogeny broth, silver was exclusively associated with moderately-sized species (~30 kDa) and bound by thiolate ligands. In two representative bacterial pathogens cultured in lysogeny broth including sub-lethal concentrations of ionic silver, silver was found in cells to be predominantly coordinated by thiolate species. The silver biomacromolecule-binding profile in Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was complex, with silver bound by a range of species spanning from 20 kDa to >1220 kDa. In bacterial cells, silver was nonuniformly colocalised with copper-bound proteins, suggesting that cellular copper processing may, in part, confuse silver for nutrient copper. Notably, in the treated cells, silver was not detected bound to low molecular weight compounds such as glutathione or bacillithiol.

Conformation of the Solute-Binding Protein AdcAII Influences Zinc Uptake in Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Streptococcus pneumoniae scavenges essential zinc ions from the host during colonization and infection. This is achieved by the ATP-binding cassette transporter, AdcCB, and two solute-binding proteins (SBPs), AdcA and AdcAII. It has been established that AdcAII serves a greater role during initial infection, but the molecular details of how the protein selectively acquires Zn(II) remain poorly understood. This can be attributed to the refractory nature of metal-free AdcAII to high-resolution structural determination techniques. Here, we overcome this issue by separately mutating the Zn(II)-coordinating residues and performing a combination of structural and biochemical analyses on the variant proteins. Structural analyses of Zn(II)-bound AdcAII variants revealed that specific regions within the protein underwent conformational changes via direct coupling to each of the metal-binding residues. Quantitative in vitro metal-binding assays combined with affinity determination and phenotypic growth assays revealed that each of the four Zn(II)-coordinating residues contributes to metal binding by AdcAII. Intriguingly, the phenotypic growth impact of the mutant adcAII alleles was, in general, independent of affinity, suggesting that the Zn(II)-bound conformation of the SBP is crucial for efficacious metal uptake. Collectively, these data highlight the intimate coupling of ligand affinity with protein conformational change in ligand-receptor proteins and provide a putative mechanism for AdcAII. These findings provide further mechanistic insight into the structural and functional diversity of SBPs that is broadly applicable to other prokaryotes.

A Trap-Door Mechanism for Zinc Acquisition by Streptococcus pneumoniae AdcA.

Zinc is an essential element in all domains of life. Nonetheless, how prokaryotes achieve selective acquisition of zinc from the extracellular environment remains poorly understood. Here, we elucidate a novel mechanism for zinc-binding in AdcA, a solute-binding protein of Streptococcus pneumoniae Crystal structure analyses reveal the two-domain organization of the protein and show that only the N-terminal domain (AdcAN) is necessary for zinc import. Zinc binding induces only minor changes in the global protein conformation of AdcA and stabilizes a highly mobile loop within the AdcAN domain. This loop region, which is conserved in zinc-specific solute-binding proteins, facilitates closure of the AdcAN binding site and is crucial for zinc acquisition. Collectively, these findings elucidate the structural and functional basis of selective zinc uptake in prokaryotes.IMPORTANCE Zinc is an essential nutrient for the virulence of bacterial pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae Many Gram-positive bacteria use a two-domain lipoprotein for zinc acquisition, but how this class of metal-recruiting proteins acquire zinc and interact with the uptake machinery has remained poorly defined. We report the first structure of a two-domain lipoprotein, AdcA from S. pneumoniae, and use computational, spectroscopic, and microbiological approaches to provide new insights into the functional basis of zinc recruitment. Our findings reveal that AdcA employs a novel mechanism for zinc binding that we have termed the "trap-door" mechanism, and we show how the static metal-binding site of the protein, which confers its selectivity for zinc ions, is combined with a dynamic surface element to facilitate zinc recruitment and import into the bacterium. Together, these findings expand our understanding of how bacteria acquire zinc from the environment and provide a foundation for inhibiting this process, through antimicrobial targeting of the dynamic structural elements to block bacterial zinc scavenging.

The structural basis of bacterial manganese import.

Metal ions are essential for all forms of life. In prokaryotes, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) permeases serve as the primary import pathway for many micronutrients including the first-row transition metal manganese. However, the structural features of ionic metal transporting ABC permeases have remained undefined. Here, we present the crystal structure of the manganese transporter PsaBC from Streptococcus pneumoniae in an open-inward conformation. The type II transporter has a tightly closed transmembrane channel due to "extracellular gating" residues that prevent water permeation or ion reflux. Below these residues, the channel contains a hitherto unreported metal coordination site, which is essential for manganese translocation. Mutagenesis of the extracellular gate perturbs manganese uptake, while coordination site mutagenesis abolishes import. These structural features are highly conserved in metal-specific ABC transporters and are represented throughout the kingdoms of life. Collectively, our results define the structure of PsaBC and reveal the features required for divalent cation transport.