Molecular image-guided surgery in gynaecological cancer: where do we stand?

PURPOSE: The aim of this review is to give an overview of the current status of molecular image-guided surgery in gynaecological malignancies, from both clinical and technological points of view. METHODS: A narrative approach was taken to describe the relevant literature, focusing on clinical applications of molecular image-guided surgery in gynaecology, preoperative imaging as surgical roadmap, and intraoperative devices. RESULTS: The most common clinical application in gynaecology is sentinel node biopsy (SNB). Other promising approaches are receptor-target modalities and occult lesion localisation. Preoperative SPECT/CT and PET/CT permit a roadmap for adequate surgical planning. Intraoperative detection modalities span from 1D probes to 2D portable cameras and 3D freehand imaging. CONCLUSION: After successful application of radio-guided SNB and SPECT, innovation is leaning towards hybrid modalities, such as hybrid tracer and fusion of imaging approaches including SPECT/CT and PET/CT. Robotic surgery, as well as augmented reality and virtual reality techniques, is leading to application of these innovative technologies to the clinical setting, guiding surgeons towards a precise, personalised, and minimally invasive approach.

Update on the Sentinel Node Procedure in Vulvar Cancer.

Early-stage vulvar cancer is managed by a local excision of the primary tumor and, if indicated, a sentinel node (SN) biopsy to assess the need for further groin treatment. With the SN procedure, many patients can be treated less radically and will experience less complications and morbidity compared with an inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy (IFL). Still, the SN procedure can be further optimized. Different tracers for detecting the SN are being investigated, aiming to optimize detection rates and decrease the burden of the procedure and short-term complications. Until now, no standardized protocols exist for the pathologic workup of the SN, possibly leading to discrepancies in detection of metastases between institutes using different methods. New techniques, such as one-step nucleic amplification, seem to have potential in accurately detecting metastases in other cancers, but have not yet been investigated in vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC). Furthermore, several studies have investigated the possibility to broaden the indications for the SN procedure, such as its use in recurrent disease, larger tumors, or multifocal tumors. Although these studies show encouraging results, cohorts are small and further studies are needed. Prospective studies are currently investigating these subgroups. Lastly, several studies investigated optimization of groin treatment of patients with a metastatic SN. Inguinofemoral radiotherapy is a good alternative to IFL in patients with micrometastases in the SN, with comparable efficacy and less treatment-related morbidity. Reduction of the radicality of groin treatment is also possible in other ways, such as omitting contralateral IFL in patients with lateralized tumors and a unilateral metastatic SN. In conclusion, the SN procedure is an established procedure in early-stage VSCC, although optimization of the technique, pathologic workup, indications, and treatment in the setting of metastatic disease are the subject of ongoing research.

Incidence of inguinofemoral lymph node metastases at the first local recurrence of vulvar cancer: a Dutch nationwide study.

BACKGROUND: Up to 40% of vulvar cancer patients present with local recurrence within 10 years of follow-up. An inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy (IFL) is indicated if not performed at primary treatment. The incidence and risk factors for lymph node metastases (LNM) at first local recurrence, however, are unclear. Our aim was to determine the incidence of LNM at first local recurrence, in relation to previous groin treatment and clinicopathological factors. METHODS: A multicenter cohort study including vulvar cancer patients with a first macroinvasive local recurrence after primary surgical treatment between 2000 and 2015 was conducted in the Netherlands. Groin status at local recurrence was defined as positive (N+), negative (N-) or unknown (N?) and based on histology, imaging and follow-up. Patient-, tumour- and treatment characteristics of primary and recurrent disease were analysed. RESULTS: Overall, 16.3% (66/404) had a N+ groin status at first local recurrence, 66.4% (268/404) N- and 17.3% (70/404) N? groin status. The incidence of a N+ groin status was comparable after previous SLN and IFL, 11.5% and 13.8%, respectively. A N+ groin status was related to tumour size (25 vs.12 mm; P < 0.001), depth of invasion (5 vs. 3 mm; P < 0.001) and poorly differentiated tumours (22.9 vs. 11.9%; P = 0.050) at local recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of LNM at first local recurrence in vulvar cancer patients was 16.3%, and independent of previous type of groin surgery. In accordance with primary diagnosis, tumour size, depth of invasion, and tumour grade were significantly associated with a positive groin status.

European Society of Gynaecological Oncology Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Vulvar Cancer - Update 2023.

BACKGROUND: As part of its mission to improve the quality of care for women with gynecological cancers across Europe, the European Society of Gynaecological Oncology (ESGO) first published in 2017 evidence-based guidelines for the management of patients with vulvar cancer. OBJECTIVE: To update the ESGO guidelines based on the new evidence addressing the management of vulvar cancer and to cover new topics in order to provide comprehensive guidelines on all relevant issues of diagnosis and treatment of vulvar cancer. METHODS: The ESGO Council nominated an international development group comprised of practicing clinicians who provide care to vulvar cancer patients and have demonstrated leadership through their expertize in clinical care and research, national and international engagement and profile as well as dedication to the topics addressed to serve on the expert panel (18 experts across Europe). To ensure that the statements were evidence-based, new data identified from a systematic search were reviewed and critically appraised. In the absence of any clear scientific evidence, judgment was based on the professional experience and consensus of the international development group. Prior to publication, the guidelines were reviewed by 206 international practitioners in cancer care delivery and patient representatives. RESULTS: The updated guidelines cover comprehensively diagnosis and referral, staging, pathology, pre-operative investigations, surgical management (local treatment, groin treatment, sentinel lymph node procedure, reconstructive surgery), (chemo)radiotherapy, systemic treatment, treatment of recurrent disease (vulvar, inguinal, pelvic, and distant recurrences), and follow-up. Management algorithms are also defined.

Autologous lipoaspirate as a new treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: A review on literature.

Lichen sclerosus (LS) is a chronic inflammatory dermatosis that mostly affects the genital and anal skin areas. Symptoms may vary from pruritis and pain to sexual dysfunction; however, LS can also be asymptomatic. LS occurs at all ages and in both sexes. Approximately 5% of all women affected by vulvar LS will develop vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Topical treatment is safe but less effective resulting in chronic course in most patients, who suffer from persistent itching and pain. In severe cases of therapy-resistant LS, there is no adequate treatment. Fat grafting is a novel regenerative therapy to reduce dermal fibrosis. The therapeutic effect of adipose tissue grafts for LS is already investigated in various pioneering studies. This review provides an overview of these studies and the putative mechanisms-of-action of fat grafting to treat LS.

Sentinel lymph node procedure in patients with recurrent vulvar squamous cell carcinoma: a proposed protocol for a multicentre observational study.

BACKGROUND: Standard groin treatment in recurrent vulvar cancer consists of uni- or bilateral inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy (IFL), whereas in the primary setting women with selected unifocal tumours will undergo a sentinel lymph node (SLN) procedure. The SLN procedure results in fewer short and long-term sequelae compared to IFL, but some concerns must first be considered. Lymph drainage of the vulvar region can be affected by a previous surgery, which might reduce the number of detectable SLN nodes (feasibility) but increase the chance of encountering aberrant lymph drainage patterns such as bilateral SLNs in lateral tumours or SLNs at unexpected locations. Therefore, the SLN procedure potentially carries a higher risk of groin recurrence if a tumour positive node is not retrieved, but may also improve outcomes for women with aberrant drainage patterns. Since the relative benefits and drawbacks of the SLN procedure are still unclear we will investigate the safety of the SLN procedure in women with a first recurrent vulvar cancer. In a simultaneously started registration study we prospectively gather information on women with a first recurrence of vulvar cancer ineligible for the SLN procedure. METHOD: In this prospective multicentre observational study all women with a first recurrence of vulvar cancer will be asked to consent to the collection of information on their diagnostics, treatment and outcome, and to complete quality of life and lymph oedema questionnaires. Women with unifocal tumours smaller than 4 cm and unsuspicious groin nodes will be offered the SLN procedure, with follow-up every 3 months together with imaging at 6 and 12 months when the SLN is tumour negative. The primary outcome is groin recurrence within 2 years of initial surgery. A total of 150 women with negative SLNs will be required to demonstrate safety, a stopping rule will apply and an extensive statistical analysis has been designed. DISCUSSION: Should the SLN procedure prove feasible and safe in recurrent vulvar cancer, it will be available for implementation in clinics worldwide. The inclusion of women ineligible for the SLN procedure in the current prospective study will help to bridge knowledge gaps and define future research questions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Medical Ethical Committee approval number NL70149.078.19 (trial protocol version 2.0, date March 2nd, 2020). Affiliation: Erasmus Medical Centre. Dutch trial register NL8467 . Date of registration 19.03.2020.

Challenges and controversies patients and (health care) professionals experience in managing vaginal, vulvar, penile or anal cancer: The SILENCE study.

OBJECTIVE: Patients with vaginal, vulvar, penile or anal cancer experience deteriorated psychosocial functioning and decreased Quality of Life (QoL). The aims of this study were to explore (1) the challenges and controversies patients experience in managing vaginal, vulvar, penile or anal cancer; their unmet needs; and how this affects their psychosocial functioning and (2) the gaps health care professionals (HCPs) experience in providing psychosocial support and potential improvements in care. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews with patients with vaginal, vulvar, penile or anal cancer and with HCPs were conducted. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed. RESULTS: Fourteen patients (86% female; mean age 55.5) and 12 HCPs (75% female; mean age 46.4) participated. Four themes were identified: (1) recognisable symptoms but unfamiliar diagnosis, (2) 'double hit' has severe impact on psychosocial functioning, (3) personal and tailored information is important but not guaranteed and (4) all-encompassing care to improve psychosocial functioning and QoL. CONCLUSION: Patients with vaginal, vulvar, penile or anal cancer encounter a lack of awareness and knowledge about their rare cancer type, difficulties regarding communication and long-term changes in body image and sexuality. Awareness of symptoms should be raised and psychosocial care should be offered on a structural basis.

Post-discharge Telemonitoring of Physical Activity, Vital Signs, and Patient-Reported Symptoms in Older Patients Undergoing Cancer Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative home monitoring could potentially detect complications early, but evidence in oncogeriatric surgery is scarce. Therefore, we evaluated whether post-discharge physical activity, vital signs, and patient-reported symptoms are related to post-discharge complications and hospital readmissions in older patients undergoing cancer surgery. METHODS: In this observational cohort study, we monitored older patients (≥65 years of age) undergoing cancer surgery, for 2 weeks post-discharge using tablet-based applications and connected devices. Outcome measures were post-discharge complications and readmissions; physical activity and patient-reported symptoms over time; and threshold violations for physical activity (step count <1000 steps/day), vital signs (temperature <36°C or >38°C; blood pressure <100/60 mmHg or >150/100 mmHg; heart rate <50 bpm or >100 bpm; weight -5% or +5% of weight at discharge); and patient-reported symptoms (pain score greater than the previous day; presence of dyspnea, vomiting, dizziness, fever). RESULTS: Of 58 patients (mean age 72 years), 24 developed a post-discharge complication and 13 were readmitted. Measured parameters indicated 392 threshold violations out of 5379 measurements (7.3%) in 40 patients, mostly because of physical inactivity. Patients with readmissions had lower physical activity at discharge and at day 9 after discharge and violated a physical activity threshold more often. Patients with post-discharge complications had a higher median pain score compared with patients without these adverse events. No differences in threshold violations of other parameters were observed between patients with and without post-discharge complications and readmissions. CONCLUSION: Our results show the potential of telemonitoring older patients after cancer surgery but confirm that detecting post-discharge complications is complex and multifactorial.

The OncoLifeS data-biobank for oncology: a comprehensive repository of clinical data, biological samples, and the patient's perspective.

BACKGROUND: Understanding cancer heterogeneity, its temporal evolution over time, and the outcomes of guided treatment depend on accurate data collection in a context of routine clinical care. We have developed a hospital-based data-biobank for oncology, entitled OncoLifeS (Oncological Life Study: Living well as a cancer survivor), that links routine clinical data with preserved biological specimens and quality of life assessments. The aim of this study is to describe the organization and development of a data-biobank for cancer research. RESULTS: We have enrolled 3704 patients aged ≥ 18 years diagnosed with cancer, of which 45 with hereditary breast-ovarian cancer (70% participation rate) as of October 24th, 2019. The average age is 63.6 ± 14.2 years and 1892 (51.1%) are female. The following data are collected: clinical and treatment details, comorbidities, lifestyle, radiological and pathological findings, and long-term outcomes. We also collect and store various biomaterials of patients as well as information from quality of life assessments. CONCLUSION: Embedding a data-biobank in clinical care can ensure the collection of high-quality data. Moreover, the inclusion of longitudinal quality of life data allows us to incorporate patients' perspectives and inclusion of imaging data provides an opportunity for analyzing raw imaging data using artificial intelligence (AI) methods, thus adding new dimensions to the collected data.

Determinants of health-related quality of life in elderly ovarian cancer patients: The role of frailty and dependence.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the impact of frailty and dependence on health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in elderly women diagnosed with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). METHODS: Data was gathered from a prospectively collected data biobank, OncoLifeS (Oncological Life Study) at the University Medical Center of Groningen. Women with a diagnosis of EOC, ≥65 years of age, with baseline assessment available from January 2016 to May 2018 were included. HRQOL was determined using the EORTC QLQ-C30 yielding scores on Global Health Status, five functional scales, three symptom scales, and six single items. The summary score was also calculated. Frailty was measured using the Groningen Frailty Indicator (GFI), and dependence using the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL). To evaluate the impact of frailty and dependence on HRQOL, linear regression was performed. Analyses were adjusted for age and tumor stage. RESULTS: 84 patients were included. Median age was 71 years (IQR: 68-75), 78% had advanced stage and 81% serous histology. Overall, the median global health status was 67 (IQR: 50-83). HRQOL scales with lowest scores were: role functioning (median: 66.7; IQR: 33-100), fatigue (median: 33.3; IQR: 22-56) and insomnia (median: 33.3; IQR: 0-67). Being frail was associated with worse functioning on all HRQOL scales and higher symptom scores (p = .001). Conversely, being independent was associated with better functioning on all HRQOL scales and lower symptom scores. These associations remained significant after adjusting for age and tumor stage. CONCLUSION: In women ≥65 years, diagnosed with EOC, frailty and dependence are associated to reduced HRQOL. These associations remain significant adjusting for age and stage.

Vulvar Paget disease: A national retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Vulvar Paget disease (VPD) is a rare skin disorder that is considered premalignant. OBJECTIVE: To assess the clinical course, treatment schedules, and effect of invasion and treatment on recurrence and survival in patients with VPD. METHODS: Data on women with VPD were retrieved from the medical files and pathology reports in all Dutch tertiary university medical centers. Disease-free survival and 5-year disease-specific survival were estimated by using Kaplan-Meier curves. RESULTS: Data on 113 patients whose VPD was diagnosed between 1991 and 2016 were analyzed; 77% had noninvasive VPD. Most of the women (65%) underwent a surgical procedure. Recurrences were reported in 40%. Of the women with noninvasive VPD, 8% developed invasion. There were no disease-specific deaths reported in the women with noninvasive VPD. The 5-year disease-specific survival rate was greater than 98% in noninvasive and microinvasive VPD, but significantly worse in invasive VPD (50% [P < .0005]). LIMITATIONS: The main limitations of this study are its retrospective character and the fact that original pathology samples were not available for reassessment. CONCLUSIONS: VPD is extremely rare, and the recurrence rates are high. Most patients have noninvasive VPD, which does not affect survival and should be considered a chronic disorder with limited invasive potential. In cases of invasive disease, survival decreases significantly.

Prognostic factors for local recurrence of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: In patients treated for early-stage squamous cell vulvar carcinoma local recurrence is reported in up to 40% after ten years. Knowledge on prognostic factors related to local recurrences should be helpful to select high risk patients and/or to develop strategies to prevent local recurrences. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aims to evaluate the current knowledge on the incidence of local recurrences in vulvar carcinoma related to clinicopathologic and cell biologic variables. DATA SOURCES: Relevant studies were identified by an extensive online electronic search in July 2017. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Studies reporting prognostic factors specific for local recurrences of vulvar carcinoma were included. STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS: Two review authors independently performed data selection, extraction and assessment of study quality. The risk difference was calculated for each prognostic factor when described in two or more studies. RESULTS: Twenty-two studies were included; most of all were retrospective and mainly reported pathologic prognostic factors. Our review indicates an estimated annual local recurrence rate of 4% without plateauing. The prognostic relevance for local recurrence of vulvar carcinoma of all analyzed variables remains equivocal, including pathologic tumor free margin distance <8mm, presence of lichen sclerosus, groin lymph node metastases and a variety of primary tumor characteristics (grade of differentiation, tumor size, tumor focality, depth of invasion, lymphovascular space invasion, tumor localization and presence of human papillomavirus). CONCLUSIONS: Current quality of data on prognostic factors for local recurrences in vulvar carcinoma patients does not allow evidence-based clinical decision making. Further research on prognostic factors, applying state of the art methodology is needed to identify high-risk patients and to develop alternative primary and secondary prevention strategies.

Quality of Life and Sexual Functioning After Vulvar Reconstruction With the Lotus Petal Flap.

OBJECTIVE: Resection of (pre) malignant lesions in the vulvoperineal area may result in large defects that cannot be closed primarily. The lotus petal flap technique is widely used for reconstruction. The aim of this study was to evaluate both quality of life (QoL) and sexual functioning of patients who underwent the lotus petal flap procedure, because no data are available on this topic. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed on all eligible patients (N = 38) who underwent the lotus petal flap procedure between 2005 and 2016. The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire C30, Female Sexual Function Index, and Body Image Scale were used to evaluate QoL and sexual functioning. The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire C30 and Female Sexual Function Index scores were compared with scores of age-matched healthy women. RESULTS: Twenty-six patients (68%) responded. The mean (SD) age was 65.5 (16.3) years, and the median follow-up time was 38.5 months (range 16-141 months). Quality of life scores were lower compared with healthy women in the domains physical, role, and social functioning. Sexual activity rates were comparable with healthy women; however, sexual functioning was worse. Although patients were satisfied about their sexual life, pain was reported. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who underwent vulvar reconstructive surgery with lotus petal flaps seem to have a lower QoL compared with healthy women. Patients report more pain during sexual activity but are satisfied about their sexual functioning. These results should be included in preoperative counseling and follow-up of future patients eligible for vulvar reconstruction with a lotus petal flap.

European Society of Gynaecological Oncology Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Vulvar Cancer.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop clinically relevant and evidence-based guidelines as part of European Society of Gynaecological Oncology's mission to improve the quality of care for women with gynecologic cancers across Europe. METHODS: The European Society of Gynaecological Oncology Council nominated an international development group made of practicing clinicians who provide care to patients with vulvar cancer and have demonstrated leadership and interest in the management of patients with vulvar cancer (18 experts across Europe). To ensure that the statements are evidence based, the current literature identified from a systematic search has been reviewed and critically appraised. In the absence of any clear scientific evidence, judgment was based on the professional experience and consensus of the development group (expert agreement). The guidelines are thus based on the best available evidence and expert agreement. Prior to publication, the guidelines were reviewed by 181 international reviewers including patient representatives independent from the development group. RESULTS: The guidelines cover diagnosis and referral, preoperative investigations, surgical management (local treatment, groin treatment including sentinel lymph node procedure, reconstructive surgery), radiation therapy, chemoradiation, systemic treatment, treatment of recurrent disease (vulvar recurrence, groin recurrence, distant metastases), and follow-up.

Repeat sentinel lymph node procedure in patients with recurrent vulvar squamous cell carcinoma is feasible.

OBJECTIVE: Standard treatment of primary T1 squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the vulva <4cm consists of wide local excision (WLE) and sentinel lymph node (SLN) procedure of the groin(s). In case of a local recurrence WLE and inguino femoral lymphadenectomy (IFL) is generally recommended. In this study we assessed the feasibility of repeat SLN procedure in patients with recurrent vulvar SCC who were not able or willing to undergo IFL. METHODS: A retrospective study was performed in consecutive patients with recurrent vulvar SCC who underwent a repeat SLN procedure between 2006 and 2014. We present the clinical and pathological outcomes. The study conforms to the STROBE guidelines. RESULTS: A total number of 27 patients aged 35-87years at first diagnosis of SCC of the vulva were identified. Median follow-up after 2nd surgery was 27.4 (range 2-96) months. In 78% of patients and in 84% of the groins the repeat SLN procedure was successful. No structured questionnaires were used to describe details on the repeat SLN procedures but in general the gynecologic oncologists experienced repeat SLN procedures more challenging compared to primary procedures. There were no groin recurrences documented. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that it is feasible to perform a repeat SLN procedure in recurrent vulvar SCC, but the procedure appears technically more challenging compared to primary setting, resulting in a lower SLN identification rate.

Update on sentinel lymph node biopsy for early-stage vulvar cancer.

Two prospective, multicenter clinical trials have demonstrated the feasibility and reproducibility of sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy as part of the standard management of early-stage vulvar carcinoma. On the basis of the results of these trials, many gynecologic oncologists have incorporated SLN biopsy for vulvar cancer into their practice. Studies have further shown that SLN biopsy is associated with better quality of life than full lymphadenectomy, is more cost-effective than full lymphadenectomy, and improved pathologic evaluation. A large observational study is currently evaluating the outcomes of patients with early-stage vulvar cancer according to the results of their SLN biopsy and the approach to their care; this study may confirm that full inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy is no longer necessary in most patients with this disease. Here, we review the published data supporting SLN biopsy as part of the standard of care for women with early-stage vulvar cancer and discuss future considerations for the management of this disease.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy in the management of gynecologic cancer.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To summarize current knowledge and recent advances in sentinel lymph node (SLN) concept in the three most frequent gynecological cancers. RECENT FINDINGS: In cervical cancer, SLN biopsy and ultrastaging has high sensitivity in lymph node staging in patients with bilaterally detected SLN. The presence of micrometastasis is associated with shortened survival. In endometrial cancer, SLN biopsy incorporating an institutional mapping algorithm and ultrastaging has been shown to significantly reduce false-negative rates and increase sensitivity and negative predictive value. SUMMARY: SLN biopsy and ultrastaging is useful in current management of patients with early-stage cervical cancer for multiple reasons, such as the reliable detection of key lymph nodes, identification of micrometastasis and intraoperative triage of patients. Although a complete or selective pelvic and paraaortic lymphadenectomy for adequate staging remains the standard treatment approach in patients with early-stage endometrial cancer, SLN biopsy has been shown to be safe and effective in detecting lymph node metastases. The application of the SLN procedure is safe in patients with early-stage unifocal squamous cell cancer of the vulva (<4  cm) and no suspicious enlarged lymph nodes at imaging.

History and Updates of the GROINSS-V Studies.

Surgical management of vulvar cancer is associated with high morbidity rates. The main aim of the GROINSS-V studies is reducing treatment-related morbidity by finding safe alternative treatment options in early-stage vulvar cancer patients. This article reviews the history, results, and updates of the GROINSS-V studies. The first GROINSS-V study was a multicenter observational study (from 2000 to 2006), which investigated the safety and clinical applicability of the sentinel lymph node procedure in patients with early-stage vulvar cancer. GROINSS-V-I showed that omitting inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy was safe in early-stage vulvar cancer patients with a negative sentinel lymph node, with an impressive reduction in treatment-related morbidity. GROINSS-V-II, a prospective multicenter phase II single-arm treatment trial (from 2005 to 2016) investigated whether radiotherapy could be a safe alternative for inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy in patients with a metastatic sentinel lymph node. This study showed that radiotherapy in patients with sentinel lymph node micrometastases (≤2 mm) was safe in terms of groin recurrence rate and with less treatment-related morbidity. These results, published in August 2021, should be implemented in (inter)national treatment guidelines for vulvar cancer. GROINSS-V-III recently started including patients. This study investigates the effectiveness and safety of chemoradiation in patients with a macrometastasis (>2 mm) in the sentinel lymph node.

Radiotherapy Versus Inguinofemoral Lymphadenectomy as Treatment for Vulvar Cancer Patients With Micrometastases in the Sentinel Node: Results of GROINSS-V II.

PURPOSE: The Groningen International Study on Sentinel nodes in Vulvar cancer (GROINSS-V)-II investigated whether inguinofemoral radiotherapy is a safe alternative to inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy (IFL) in vulvar cancer patients with a metastatic sentinel node (SN). METHODS: GROINSS-V-II was a prospective multicenter phase-II single-arm treatment trial, including patients with early-stage vulvar cancer (diameter < 4 cm) without signs of lymph node involvement at imaging, who had primary surgical treatment (local excision with SN biopsy). Where the SN was involved (metastasis of any size), inguinofemoral radiotherapy was given (50 Gy). The primary end point was isolated groin recurrence rate at 24 months. Stopping rules were defined for the occurrence of groin recurrences. RESULTS: From December 2005 until October 2016, 1,535 eligible patients were registered. The SN showed metastasis in 322 (21.0%) patients. In June 2010, with 91 SN-positive patients included, the stopping rule was activated because the isolated groin recurrence rate in this group went above our predefined threshold. Among 10 patients with an isolated groin recurrence, nine had SN metastases > 2 mm and/or extracapsular spread. The protocol was amended so that those with SN macrometastases (> 2 mm) underwent standard of care (IFL), whereas patients with SN micrometastases (≤ 2 mm) continued to receive inguinofemoral radiotherapy. Among 160 patients with SN micrometastases, 126 received inguinofemoral radiotherapy, with an ipsilateral isolated groin recurrence rate at 2 years of 1.6%. Among 162 patients with SN macrometastases, the isolated groin recurrence rate at 2 years was 22% in those who underwent radiotherapy, and 6.9% in those who underwent IFL (P = .011). Treatment-related morbidity after radiotherapy was less frequent compared with IFL. CONCLUSION: Inguinofemoral radiotherapy is a safe alternative for IFL in patients with SN micrometastases, with minimal morbidity. For patients with SN macrometastasis, radiotherapy with a total dose of 50 Gy resulted in more isolated groin recurrences compared with IFL.

Current controversies in the management of patients with early-stage vulvar cancer.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purpose of this review is to outline current controversies in management of early-stage vulvar cancer. The main focus will be on the procedures for assessing the sentinel node and the treatment of those with evidence of metastatic involvement. RECENT FINDINGS: Assessment of the sentinel node has recently been introduced into the standard treatment of early-stage squamous cell vulvar cancer. The combination of a radioactive tracer and blue dye is the most accurate technique for sentinel node detection. Preoperative imaging is recommended to rule out gross nodal involvement and ultrasound with fine needle aspiration cytology by an experienced radiologist appears to have the highest sensitivity/specificity for detecting metastases, although large comparative studies are not available. All patients with sentinel node metastases require additional treatment to the groin, independent of the size of metastasis in the sentinel node and currently this involves inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy. Further research is ongoing to investigate the role of radiotherapy instead of lymphadenectomy. The little experience there is of sentinel node biopsy in vulvar melanoma suggests that the procedure is feasible and inclusion criteria should follow those of cutaneous melanoma. SUMMARY: Sentinel node biopsy is safe in treatment of early-stage vulvar cancer. Ongoing studies are investigating the optimal additional treatment for patients with a positive sentinel node in terms of efficacy and morbidity.