Solar-powered O2 delivery for the treatment of children with hypoxaemia in Uganda: a stepped-wedge, cluster randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Supplemental O2 is not always available at health facilities in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). Solar-powered O2 delivery can overcome gaps in O2 access, generating O2 independent of grid electricity. We hypothesized that installation of solar-powered O2 systems on the paediatrics ward of rural Ugandan hospitals would lead to a reduction in mortality among hypoxaemic children. METHODS: In this pragmatic, country-wide, stepped-wedge, cluster randomised controlled trial, solar-powered O2 systems (ie, photovoltaic cells, battery bank, and O2 concentrator) were sequentially installed at 20 rural health facilities in Uganda. Sites were selected for inclusion based on the following criteria: District Hospital or Health Centre IV with paediatric inpatient services; supplemental O2 on the paediatric ward was not available or was unreliable; and adequate space to install solar panels, a battery bank, and electrical wiring. Allocation concealment was achieved for sites up to 2 weeks before installation, but the study was not masked overall. Children younger than 5 years admitted to hospital with hypoxaemia and respiratory signs were included. The primary outcome was mortality within 48 h of detection of hypoxaemia. The statistical analysis used a linear mixed effects logistic regression model accounting for cluster as random effect and calendar time as fixed effect. The trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03851783. FINDINGS: Between June 28, 2019, and Nov 30, 2021, 2409 children were enrolled across 20 hospitals and, after exclusions, 2405 children were analysed. 964 children were enrolled before site randomisation and 1441 children were enrolled after site randomisation (intention to treat). There were 104 deaths, 91 of which occurred within 48 h of detection of hypoxaemia. The 48 h mortality was 49 (5·1%) of 964 children before randomisation and 42 (2·9%) of 1440 (one individual did not have vital status documented at 48 h) after randomisation (adjusted odds ratio 0·50, 95% CI 0·27-0·91, p=0·023). Results were sensitive to alternative parameterisations of the secular trend. There was a relative risk reduction of 48·7% (95% CI 8·5-71·5), and a number needed to treat with solar-powered O2 of 45 (95% CI 28-230) to save one life. Use of O2 increased from 484 (50·2%) of 964 children before randomisation to 1424 (98·8%) of 1441 children after randomisation (p<0·0001). Adverse events were similar before and after randomisation and were not considered to be related to the intervention. The estimated cost-effectiveness was US$25 (6-505) per disability-adjusted life-year saved. INTERPRETATION: This stepped-wedge, cluster randomised controlled trial shows the mortality benefit of improving O2 access with solar-powered O2. This study could serve as a model for scale-up of solar-powered O2 as one solution to O2 insecurity in LMICs. FUNDING: Grand Challenges Canada and The Women and Children's Health Research Institute.

sTREM-1: A Biomarker of Mortality in Severe Malaria Impacted by Acute Kidney Injury.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is an important cause of mortality in African children. Identification of biomarkers to identify children at risk of mortality has the potential to improve outcomes. METHODS: We evaluated 11 biomarkers of host response in 592 children with severe malaria. The primary outcome was biomarker performance for predicting mortality. Biomarkers were evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis comparing the area under the ROC curve (AUROC). RESULTS: Mortality was 7.3% among children in the study with 72% of deaths occurring within 24 hours of admission. Among the candidate biomarkers, soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (sTREM-1) had the highest AUROC (0.78 [95% confidence interval, .70-.86]), outperforming several other biomarkers including C-reactive protein and procalcitonin. sTREM-1 was the top-performing biomarker across prespecified subgroups (malaria definition, site, sex, nutritional status, age). Using established cutoffs, we evaluated mortality across sTREM-1 risk zones. Among children with acute kidney injury, 39.9% of children with a critical-risk sTREM-1 result had an indication for dialysis. When evaluated relative to a disease severity score, sTREM-1 improved mortality prediction (difference in AUROC, P = .016). CONCLUSIONS: sTREM-1 is a promising biomarker to guide rational allocation of clinical resources and should be integrated into clinical decision support algorithms, particularly when acute kidney injury is suspected.

Pharmacokinetic-guided hydroxyurea to reduce transfusions in Ugandan children with sickle cell anemia: study design of the Alternative Dosing And Prevention of Transfusions (ADAPT) trial.

INTRODUCTION: People with sickle cell anemia (SCA) may require frequent blood transfusions to treat acute and chronic complications. Hydroxyurea is a life-saving treatment for SCA that could also decrease the need for blood transfusions. Inadequate medication access and challenges in dose optimization limit the widespread use of hydroxyurea in Africa. If feasible, pharmacokinetic (PK) dosing might improve dose determination to minimize toxicities and maximize clinical benefits. The Alternative Dosing And Prevention of Transfusions (ADAPT, NCT05662098) trial will analyze the impact of hydroxyurea on transfusion rate and serve as a pilot study to evaluate the feasibility of PK-guided hydroxyurea dosing in Uganda. METHODS: Herein we describe the rationale and design of ADAPT, a prospective cohort study of ~100 children with SCA in Jinja, Uganda. The primary hypothesis is that hydroxyurea will decrease blood transfusion use by ≥50%, comparing the transfusion incidence rate ratio between a 3-month pre-treatment and a 12-month treatment period. A key secondary hypothesis is that our PK-dosing approach will generate a suitable hydroxyurea dose for ≥80% of participants. Every ADAPT participant will undergo hydroxyurea PK testing, and if a dose is generated within 15-35 mg/kg/day participants will start on their individualized dose. If not, they will start on a default dose of 20 mg/kg/day. Hydroxyurea dose optimization will occur with periodic dose adjustments. CONCLUSION: Overall, demonstrating the reduction in blood transfusion utilization with hydroxyurea treatment would provide leverage to increase hydroxyurea access, and PK-guided hydroxyurea dosing should optimize the safe and effective treatment of SCA across sub-Saharan Africa.

Soluble Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator Receptor as a Prognostic Marker of Ugandan Children at Risk of Severe and Fatal Malaria.

BACKGROUND: Current malaria diagnostic tests do not reliably identify children at risk of severe and fatal infection. Host immune and endothelial activation contribute to malaria pathogenesis. Soluble urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) is a marker of these pathways. We hypothesized that measuring suPAR at presentation could risk-stratify children with malaria. METHODS: Plasma suPAR levels were determined in consecutive febrile children with malaria at presentation to hospital in Jinja, Uganda. We evaluated the accuracy of suPAR in predicting in-hospital mortality, and whether suPAR could improve a validated clinical scoring system (Lambaréné Organ Dysfunction Score [LODS]). RESULTS: Of the 1226 children with malaria, 39 (3.2%) died. suPAR concentrations at presentation were significantly higher in children who went on to die than in those who survived (P < .0001). suPAR levels were associated with disease severity (LODS: 0 vs 1, P = .001; 1 vs 2, P < .001; 2 vs 3, 0 vs 2, 1 vs 3, and 0 vs 3, P < .0001). suPAR concentrations were excellent predictors of in-hospital mortality (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUROC], 0.92 [95% confidence interval {CI}, .91-.94]). The prognostic accuracy of LODS (AUROC, 0.93 [95% CI, .91-.94]) was improved when suPAR was added (AUROC, 0.97 [95% CI, .96-.98]; P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: Measuring suPAR at presentation can identify children at risk of severe and fatal malaria. Adding suPAR to clinical scores could improve the recognition and triage of children at risk of death. suPAR can be detected with a point-of-care test and can now be evaluated in prospective trials.

Effect of Malaria and Malaria Chemoprevention Regimens in Pregnancy and Childhood on Neurodevelopmental and Behavioral Outcomes in Children at 12, 24, and 36 Months: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Malaria in pregnancy has been associated with worse cognitive outcomes in children, but its association with behavioral outcomes and the effectiveness of malaria chemoprevention on child neurodevelopment are not well characterized. METHODS: To determine if more effective malaria chemoprevention in mothers and their children results in better neurodevelopment, 305 pregnant women were randomly assigned to 3 doses of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, 3 doses of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP), or monthly DP during pregnancy, and their 293 children were assigned to DP every 3 months or monthly DP from 2 to 24 months of age. Cognition, language, and motor function were assessed at 12, 24. and 36 months of age, and attention, memory, behavior, and executive function were assessed at 24 and 36 months of age. RESULTS: Children of mothers with versus without malaria in pregnancy had worse scores on cognitive, behavioral, and executive function outcomes at 24 months. Clinical malaria in children within the first 12 months was similarly associated with poorer scores in behavior and executive function at 24 months, language at 24 and 36 months, and motor function scores at 36 months. However, more effective malaria chemoprevention in the mothers and children was not associated with better outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Malaria in pregnancy was associated with worse cognitive, behavioral, and executive function scores in affected children, but more effective malaria chemoprevention measures did not result in better outcomes. Malaria chemoprevention prior to and early in gestation and with even higher efficacy in mothers and children may be required to prevent neurodevelopmental impairment in children. Clinical Trials Registration. NCT02557425.

Hydroxyurea Dose Escalation for Sickle Cell Anemia in Sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: Hydroxyurea has proven safety, feasibility, and efficacy in children with sickle cell anemia in sub-Saharan Africa, with studies showing a reduced incidence of vaso-occlusive events and reduced mortality. Dosing standards remain undetermined, however, and whether escalation to the maximum tolerated dose confers clinical benefits that outweigh treatment-related toxic effects is unknown. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind trial, we compared hydroxyurea at a fixed dose (approximately 20 mg per kilogram of body weight per day) with dose escalation (approximately 30 mg per kilogram per day). The primary outcome was a hemoglobin level of 9.0 g or more per deciliter or a fetal hemoglobin level of 20% or more after 24 months. Secondary outcomes included the incidences of malaria, vaso-occlusive crises, and serious adverse events. RESULTS: Children received hydroxyurea at a fixed dose (94 children; mean [±SD] age, 4.6±1.0 years) or with dose escalation (93 children; mean age, 4.8±0.9 years); the mean doses were 19.2±1.8 mg per kilogram per day and 29.5±3.6 mg per kilogram per day, respectively. The data and safety monitoring board halted the trial when the numbers of clinical events were significantly lower among children receiving escalated dosing than among those receiving a fixed dose. At trial closure, 86% of the children in the dose-escalation group had reached the primary-outcome thresholds, as compared with 37% of the children in the fixed-dose group (P<0.001). Children in the dose-escalation group had fewer sickle cell-related adverse events (incidence rate ratio, 0.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.34 to 0.54), vaso-occlusive pain crises (incidence rate ratio, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.34 to 0.56), cases of acute chest syndrome or pneumonia (incidence rate ratio, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.11 to 0.56), transfusions (incidence rate ratio, 0.30; 95% CI, 0.20 to 0.43), and hospitalizations (incidence rate ratio, 0.21; 95% CI, 0.13 to 0.34). Laboratory-confirmed dose-limiting toxic effects were similar in the two groups, and there were no cases of severe neutropenia or thrombocytopenia. CONCLUSIONS: Among children with sickle cell anemia in sub-Saharan Africa, hydroxyurea with dose escalation had superior clinical efficacy to that of fixed-dose hydroxyurea, with equivalent safety. (Funded by the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation and the Cincinnati Children's Research Foundation; NOHARM MTD ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03128515.).

Apolipoprotein-E4: risk of severe malaria and mortality and cognitive impairment in pediatric cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUND: The relationship of apolipoprotein-E4 (APOE4) to mortality and cognition after severe malaria in children is unknown. METHODS: APOE genotyping was performed in children with cerebral malaria (CM, n = 261), severe malarial anemia (SMA, n = 224) and community children (CC, n = 213). Cognition was assessed over 2-year follow-up. RESULTS: A greater proportion of children with CM or SMA than CC had APOE4 (n = 162, 31.0%; n = 142, 31.7%; n = 103, 24.2%, respectively, p = 0.02), but no difference was seen in APOE3 (n = 310, 59.4%; n = 267, 59.6%; n = 282, 66.2%, respectively, p = 0.06), or APOE2 (n = 50, 9.6%; n = 39, 8.7%; and n = 41, 9.6%, respectively, p = 0.87). APOE4 was associated with increased mortality in CM (odds ratio, 2.28; 95% CI, 1.01, 5.11). However, APOE4 was associated with better long-term cognition (ß, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.04, 1.07, p = 0.04) and attention (ß 0.78; 95% CI, 0.26, 1.30, p = 0.004) in children with CM < 5 years old, but worse attention (ß, -0.90; 95% CI, -1.69, -0.10, p = 0.03) in children with CM ≥ 5 years old. Among children with CM, risk of post-discharge malaria was increased with APOE4 and decreased with APOE3. CONCLUSIONS: APOE4 is associated with higher risk of CM or SMA and mortality in children with CM, but better long-term cognition in CM survivors <5 years of age.

Impact of Oxidative Stress on Risk of Death and Readmission in African Children With Severe Malaria: A Prospective Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that oxidative stress in Ugandan children with severe malaria is associated with mortality. METHODS: We evaluated biomarkers of oxidative stress in children with cerebral malaria (CM, n = 77) or severe malarial anemia (SMA, n = 79), who were enrolled in a randomized clinical trial of immediate vs delayed iron therapy, compared with community children (CC, n = 83). Associations between admission biomarkers and risk of death during hospitalization or risk of readmission within 6 months were analyzed. RESULTS: Nine children with CM and none with SMA died during hospitalization. Children with CM or SMA had higher levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) (P < .001) and lower superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity than CC (P < .02). Children with CM had a higher risk of death with increasing HO-1 concentration (odds ratio [OR], 6.07 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.17-31.31]; P = .03) but a lower risk of death with increasing SOD activity (OR, 0.02 [95% CI, .001-.70]; P = .03). There were no associations between oxidative stress biomarkers on admission and risk of readmission within 6 months of enrollment. CONCLUSIONS: Children with CM or SMA develop oxidative stress in response to severe malaria. Oxidative stress is associated with higher mortality in children with CM but not with SMA. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT01093989.

Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations in Children With Severe Malaria Are Associated With Mortality and Worse Long-term Kidney and Cognitive Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Global changes in amino acid levels have been described in severe malaria (SM), but the relationship between amino acids and long-term outcomes in SM has not been evaluated. METHODS: We measured enrollment plasma concentrations of 20 amino acids using high-performance liquid chromatography in 500 Ugandan children aged 18 months to 12 years, including 122 community children and 378 children with SM. The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes criteria were used to define acute kidney injury (AKI) at enrollment and chronic kidney disease (CKD) at 1-year follow-up. Cognition was assessed over 2 years of follow-up. RESULTS: Compared to laboratory-defined, age-specific reference ranges, there were deficiencies in sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine, cysteine) in both community children and children with SM. Among children with SM, global changes in amino acid concentrations were observed in the context of metabolic complications including acidosis and AKI. Increases in threonine, leucine, and valine were associated with in-hospital mortality, while increases in methionine, tyrosine, lysine, and phenylalanine were associated with postdischarge mortality and CKD. Increases in glycine and asparagine were associated with worse attention in children <5 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Among children with SM, unique amino acid profiles are associated with mortality, CKD, and worse attention.

Intestinal Injury in Ugandan Children Hospitalized With Malaria.

BACKGROUND: Severe malaria is associated with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), which may involve the gastrointestinal tract. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study in Uganda, we measured markers of intestinal injury (intestinal fatty-acid binding protein [I-FABP] and zonula occludens-1 [ZO-1]) and microbial translocation (lipopolysaccharide binding protein [LBP] and soluble complement of differentiation 14 [sCD14]) among children admitted with malaria. We examined their association with biomarkers of inflammation, endothelial activation, clinical signs of hypoperfusion, organ injury, and mortality. RESULTS: We enrolled 523 children (median age 1.5 years, 46% female, 7.5% mortality). Intestinal FABP was above the normal range (≥400 pg/mL) in 415 of 523 patients (79%). Intestinal FABP correlated with ZO-1 (ρ = 0.11, P = .014), sCD14 (ρ = 0.12, P = .0046) as well as markers of inflammation and endothelial activation. Higher I-FABP levels were associated with lower systolic blood pressure (ρ = -0.14, P = .0015), delayed capillary refill time (ρ = 0.17, P = .00011), higher lactate level (ρ = 0.40, P < .0001), increasing stage of acute kidney injury (ρ = 0.20, P = .0034), and coma (P < .0001). Admission I-FABP levels ≥5.6 ng/mL were associated with a 7.4-fold higher relative risk of in-hospital death (95% confidence interval, 1.4-11, P = .0016). CONCLUSIONS: Intestinal injury occurs commonly in children hospitalized with malaria and is associated with microbial translocation, systemic inflammation, tissue hypoperfusion, MODS, and fatal outcome.

Immune and endothelial activation markers and risk stratification of childhood pneumonia in Uganda: A secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Despite the global burden of pneumonia, reliable triage tools to identify children in low-resource settings at risk of severe and fatal respiratory tract infection are lacking. This study assessed the ability of circulating host markers of immune and endothelial activation quantified at presentation, relative to currently used clinical measures of disease severity, to identify children with pneumonia who are at risk of death. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study of children aged 2 to 59 months presenting to the Jinja Regional Hospital in Jinja, Uganda between February 2012 and August 2013, who met the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) diagnostic criteria for pneumonia. Circulating plasma markers of immune (IL-6, IL-8, CXCL-10/IP-10, CHI3L1, sTNFR1, and sTREM-1) and endothelial (sVCAM-1, sICAM-1, Angpt-1, Angpt-2, and sFlt-1) activation measured at hospital presentation were compared to lactate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, procalcitonin (PCT), and C-reactive protein (CRP) with a primary outcome of predicting 48-hour mortality. Of 805 children with IMCI pneumonia, 616 had severe pneumonia. Compared to 10 other immune and endothelial activation markers, sTREM-1 levels at presentation had the best predictive accuracy in identifying 48-hour mortality for children with pneumonia (AUROC 0.885, 95% CI 0.841 to 0.928; p = 0.03 to p < 0.001) and severe pneumonia (AUROC 0.870, 95% CI 0.824 to 0.916; p = 0.04 to p < 0.001). sTREM-1 was more strongly associated with 48-hour mortality than lactate (AUROC 0.745, 95% CI 0.664 to 0.826; p < 0.001), respiratory rate (AUROC 0.615, 95% CI 0.528 to 0.702; p < 0.001), oxygen saturation (AUROC 0.685, 95% CI 0.594 to 0.776; p = 0.002), PCT (AUROC 0.650, 95% CI 0.566 to 0.734; p < 0.001), and CRP (AUROC 0.562, 95% CI 0.472 to 0.653; p < 0.001) in cases of pneumonia and severe pneumonia. The main limitation of this study was the unavailability of radiographic imaging. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of Ugandan children, sTREM-1 measured at hospital presentation was a significantly better indicator of 48-hour mortality risk than other common approaches to risk stratify children with pneumonia. Measuring sTREM-1 at clinical presentation may improve the early triage, management, and outcome of children with pneumonia at risk of death. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered at clinicaltrial.gov (NCT04726826).

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is elevated in children with acute kidney injury and sickle cell anemia, and predicts mortality.

Urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) is a biomarker of acute kidney injury that has been adapted to a urine dipstick test. However, there is limited data on its use in low-and-middle-income countries where diagnosis of acute kidney injury remains a challenge. To study this, we prospectively enrolled 250 children with sickle cell anemia aged two to 18 years encompassing 185 children hospitalized with a vaso-occlusive pain crisis and a reference group of 65 children attending the sickle cell clinic for routine care follow up. Kidney injury was defined using serial creatinine measures and a modified-Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcome definition for sickle cell anemia. Urine NGAL was measured using the NGAL dipstick and a laboratory reference. The mean age of children enrolled was 8.9 years and 42.8% were female. Among hospitalized children, 36.2% had kidney injury and 3.2% died. Measured urine NGAL levels by the dipstick were strongly correlated with the standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for urine NGAL (hospitalized children, 0.71; routine care reference, 0.88). NGAL levels were elevated in kidney injury and significantly increased across injury stages. Hospitalized children with a high-risk dipstick test (300ng/mL and more) had a 2.47-fold relative risk of kidney injury (95% confidence interval 1.68 to 3.61) and 7.28 increased risk of death (95% confidence interval 1.10 to 26.81) adjusting for age and sex. Thus, urine NGAL levels were found to be significantly elevated in children with sickle cell anemia and acute kidney injury and may predict mortality.

Transfusion Volume for Children with Severe Anemia in Africa.

BACKGROUND: Severe anemia (hemoglobin level, <6 g per deciliter) is a leading cause of hospital admission and death in children in sub-Saharan Africa. The World Health Organization recommends transfusion of 20 ml of whole-blood equivalent per kilogram of body weight for anemia, regardless of hemoglobin level. METHODS: In this factorial, open-label trial, we randomly assigned Ugandan and Malawian children 2 months to 12 years of age with a hemoglobin level of less than 6 g per deciliter and severity features (e.g., respiratory distress or reduced consciousness) to receive immediate blood transfusion with 20 ml per kilogram or 30 ml per kilogram. Three other randomized analyses investigated immediate as compared with no immediate transfusion, the administration of postdischarge micronutrients, and postdischarge prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The primary outcome was 28-day mortality. RESULTS: A total of 3196 eligible children (median age, 37 months; 2050 [64.1%] with malaria) were assigned to receive a transfusion of 30 ml per kilogram (1598 children) or 20 ml per kilogram (1598 children) and were followed for 180 days. A total of 1592 children (99.6%) in the higher-volume group and 1596 (99.9%) in the lower-volume group started transfusion (median, 1.2 hours after randomization). The mean (±SD) volume of total blood transfused per child was 475±385 ml and 353±348 ml, respectively; 197 children (12.3%) and 300 children (18.8%) in the respective groups received additional transfusions. Overall, 55 children (3.4%) in the higher-volume group and 72 (4.5%) in the lower-volume group died before 28 days (hazard ratio, 0.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.54 to 1.08; P = 0.12 by log-rank test). This finding masked significant heterogeneity in 28-day mortality according to the presence or absence of fever (>37.5°C) at screening (P=0.001 after Sidak correction). Among the 1943 children (60.8%) without fever, mortality was lower with a transfusion volume of 30 ml per kilogram than with a volume of 20 ml per kilogram (hazard ratio, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.27 to 0.69). Among the 1253 children (39.2%) with fever, mortality was higher with 30 ml per kilogram than with 20 ml per kilogram (hazard ratio, 1.91; 95% CI, 1.04 to 3.49). There was no evidence of differences between the randomized groups in readmissions, serious adverse events, or hemoglobin recovery at 180 days. CONCLUSIONS: Overall mortality did not differ between the two transfusion strategies. (Funded by the Medical Research Council and Department for International Development, United Kingdom; TRACT Current Controlled Trials number, ISRCTN84086586.).

Immediate Transfusion in African Children with Uncomplicated Severe Anemia.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization recommends not performing transfusions in African children hospitalized for uncomplicated severe anemia (hemoglobin level of 4 to 6 g per deciliter and no signs of clinical severity). However, high mortality and readmission rates suggest that less restrictive transfusion strategies might improve outcomes. METHODS: In this factorial, open-label, randomized, controlled trial, we assigned Ugandan and Malawian children 2 months to 12 years of age with uncomplicated severe anemia to immediate transfusion with 20 ml or 30 ml of whole-blood equivalent per kilogram of body weight, as determined in a second simultaneous randomization, or no immediate transfusion (control group), in which transfusion with 20 ml of whole-blood equivalent per kilogram was triggered by new signs of clinical severity or a drop in hemoglobin to below 4 g per deciliter. The primary outcome was 28-day mortality. Three other randomizations investigated transfusion volume, postdischarge supplementation with micronutrients, and postdischarge prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. RESULTS: A total of 1565 children (median age, 26 months) underwent randomization, with 778 assigned to the immediate-transfusion group and 787 to the control group; 984 children (62.9%) had malaria. The children were followed for 180 days, and 71 (4.5%) were lost to follow-up. During the primary hospitalization, transfusion was performed in all the children in the immediate-transfusion group and in 386 (49.0%) in the control group (median time to transfusion, 1.3 hours vs. 24.9 hours after randomization). The mean (±SD) total blood volume transfused per child was 314±228 ml in the immediate-transfusion group and 142±224 ml in the control group. Death had occurred by 28 days in 7 children (0.9%) in the immediate-transfusion group and in 13 (1.7%) in the control group (hazard ratio, 0.54; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.22 to 1.36; P = 0.19) and by 180 days in 35 (4.5%) and 47 (6.0%), respectively (hazard ratio, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.48 to 1.15), without evidence of interaction with other randomizations (P>0.20) or evidence of between-group differences in readmissions, serious adverse events, or hemoglobin recovery at 180 days. The mean length of hospital stay was 0.9 days longer in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence of differences in clinical outcomes over 6 months between the children who received immediate transfusion and those who did not. The triggered-transfusion strategy in the control group resulted in lower blood use; however, the length of hospital stay was longer, and this strategy required clinical and hemoglobin monitoring. (Funded by the Medical Research Council and Department for International Development; TRACT Current Controlled Trials number, ISRCTN84086586.).

Blackwater fever and acute kidney injury in children hospitalized with an acute febrile illness: pathophysiology and prognostic significance.

BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) and blackwater fever (BWF) are related but distinct renal complications of acute febrile illness in East Africa. The pathogenesis and prognostic significance of BWF and AKI are not well understood. METHODS: A prospective observational cohort study was conducted to evaluate the association between BWF and AKI in children hospitalized with an acute febrile illness. Secondary objectives were to examine the association of AKI and BWF with (i) host response biomarkers and (ii) mortality. AKI was defined using the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes criteria and BWF was based on parental report of tea-colored urine. Host markers of immune and endothelial activation were quantified on admission plasma samples. The relationships between BWF and AKI and clinical and biologic factors were evaluated using multivariable regression. RESULTS: We evaluated BWF and AKI in 999 children with acute febrile illness (mean age 1.7 years (standard deviation 1.06), 55.7% male). At enrollment, 8.2% of children had a history of BWF, 49.5% had AKI, and 11.1% had severe AKI. A history of BWF was independently associated with 2.18-fold increased odds of AKI (95% CI 1.15 to 4.16). When examining host response, severe AKI was associated with increased immune and endothelial activation (increased CHI3L1, sTNFR1, sTREM-1, IL-8, Angpt-2, sFlt-1) while BWF was predominantly associated with endothelial activation (increased Angpt-2 and sFlt-1, decreased Angpt-1). The presence of severe AKI, not BWF, was associated with increased risk of in-hospital death (RR, 2.17 95% CI 1.01 to 4.64) adjusting for age, sex, and disease severity. CONCLUSIONS: BWF is associated with severe AKI in children hospitalized with a severe febrile illness. Increased awareness of AKI in the setting of BWF, and improved access to AKI diagnostics, is needed to reduce disease progression and in-hospital mortality in this high-risk group of children through early implementation of kidney-protective measures.

Soluble T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing protein 3 in children hospitalized with pneumonia in resource-limited settings.

In a prospective cohort study of 77 children with severe pneumonia from two hospitals in Uganda, we assessed soluble T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing protein 3 (sTIM-3) levels at hospital admission and their association with pneumonia severity and subsequent mortality. sTIM-3 levels were positively correlated with the Respiratory Index of Severity in Children (RISC) (ρ = 0.35, p = 0.0017), sTIM-3 levels were higher in children who required transfer to a tertiary hospital (p = 0.014) and in fatal cases (p = 0.011). In summary, sTIM-3 is associated with disease severity and predictive of mortality in childhood pneumonia in resource-limited settings.

Interleukin-18 binding protein in infants and children hospitalized with pneumonia in low-resource settings.

Pneumonia is the leading infectious cause of death in children, with especially high mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Interleukin-18 binding protein (IL-18BP) is a natural antagonist of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-18 and is elevated in numerous autoimmune conditions and infectious diseases. We conducted a prospective cohort study to determine the association between admission IL-18BP levels and clinical severity among children admitted to two hospitals in Uganda for hypoxemic pneumonia. A total of 42 children (median age of 1.2 years) were included. IL-18BP levels were higher in patients with respiratory distress, including chest indrawing (median 15 ng/mL (IQR 9.8-18) versus 4.5 ng/mL (IQR 3.8-11) without chest indrawing, P = 0.0064) and nasal flaring (median 15 ng/mL (IQR 9.7-19) versus 11 ng/mL (IQR 5.4-14) without nasal flaring, P = 0.034). IL-18BP levels were positively correlated with the composite clinical severity score, Pediatric Early Death Index for Africa (PEDIA-e, ρ = 0.46, P = 0.0020). Patients with IL-18BP > 14 ng/mL also had slower recovery times, including time to sit (median 0.69 days (IQR 0.25-1) versus 0.15 days (IQR 0.076-0.36) with IL-18BP < 14 ng/mL, P = 0.036) and time to fever resolution (median 0.63 days (IQR 0.16-2) versus 0.13 days (IQR 0-0.42), P = 0.016). In summary, higher IL-18BP levels were associated with increased disease severity and prolonged recovery times in Ugandan children with pneumonia.

A predictive algorithm for identifying children with sickle cell anemia among children admitted to hospital with severe anemia in Africa.

Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is common in sub-Saharan Africa where approximately 1% of births are affected. Severe anemia is a common cause for hospital admission within the region yet few studies have investigated the contribution made by SCA. The Transfusion and Treatment of severe anemia in African Children Trial (ISRCTN84086586) investigated various treatment strategies in 3983 children admitted with severe anemia (hemoglobin < 6.0 g/dl) based on two severity strata to four hospitals in Africa (three Uganda and one Malawi). Children with known-SCA were excluded from the uncomplicated stratum and capped at 25% in the complicated stratum. All participants were genotyped for SCA at trial completion. SCA was rare in Malawi (six patients overall), so here we focus on the participants recruited in Uganda. We present baseline characteristics by SCA status and propose an algorithm for identifying children with unknown-SCA. Overall, 430 (12%) and 608 (17%) of the 3483 Ugandan participants had known- or unknown-SCA, respectively. Children with SCA were less likely to be malaria-positive and more likely to have an affected sibling, have gross splenomegaly, or to have received a previous blood transfusion. Most outcomes, including mortality and readmission, were better in children with either known or unknown-SCA than non-SCA children. A simple algorithm based on seven admission criteria detected 73% of all children with unknown-SCA with a number needed to test to identify one new SCA case of only two. Our proposed algorithm offers an efficient and cost-effective approach to identifying children with unknown-SCA among all children admitted with severe anemia to African hospitals where screening is not widely available.

Acute kidney injury in hospitalized children with sickle cell anemia.

BACKGROUND: Children with sickle cell anemia (SCA) are at increased risk of acute kidney injury (AKI) that may lead to death or chronic kidney disease. This study evaluated AKI prevalence and risk factors in children with SCA hospitalized with a vaso-occlusive crisis (VOC) in a low-resource setting. Further, we evaluated whether modifications to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) definition would influence clinical outcomes of AKI in children with SCA hospitalized with a VOC. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 185 children from 2 - 18 years of age with SCA (Hemoglobin SS) hospitalized with a VOC at a tertiary hospital in Uganda. Kidney function was assessed on admission, 24-48 h of hospitalization, and day 7 or discharge. Creatinine was measured enzymatically using an isotype-dilution mass spectrometry traceable method. AKI was defined using the original-KDIGO definition as ≥ 1.5-fold change in creatinine within seven days or an absolute change of ≥ 0.3 mg/dl within 48 h. The SCA modified-KDIGO (sKDIGO) definition excluded children with a 1.5-fold change in creatinine from 0.2 mg/dL to 0.3 mg/dL. RESULTS: Using KDIGO, 90/185 (48.7%) children had AKI with 61/185 (33.0%) AKI cases present on admission, and 29/124 (23.4%) cases of incident AKI. Overall, 23 children with AKI had a 1.5-fold increase in creatinine from 0.2 mg/dL to 0.3 m/dL. Using the sKDIGO-definition, 67/185 (36.2%) children had AKI with 43/185 (23.2%) cases on admission, and 24/142 (16.9%) cases of incident AKI. The sKDIGO definition, but not the original-KDIGO definition, was associated with increased mortality (0.9% vs. 7.5%, p = 0.024). Using logistic regression, AKI risk factors included age (aOR, 1.10, 95% CI 1.10, 1.20), hypovolemia (aOR, 2.98, 95% CI 1.08, 8.23), tender hepatomegaly (aOR, 2.46, 95% CI 1.05, 5.81), and infection (aOR, 2.63, 95% CI 1.19, 5.81) (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that AKI is a common complication in children with SCA admitted with VOC. The sKDIGO definition of AKI in children with SCA was a better predictor of clinical outcomes in children. There is need for promotion of targeted interventions to ensure early identification and treatment of AKI in children with SCA.

Perceptions of orthopaedic medicine students and their supervisors about practice-based learning: an exploratory qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Practice-based learning is crucial in forming appropriate strategies for improving learning among the medical students that support the country's understaffed health sector. Unsatisfactory learning consequently results in poor performance of students and poor quality of health care workforce in the long run. Exploring the perceptions about the current practice-based learning system and how to improve is thus vital. This study set out to explore the perceptions of Orthopaedic medicine students and their supervisors about practice-based learning at a tertiary training hospital. METHODS: This was an exploratory phenomenological qualitative study that involved in-depth interviews among 10 Orthopedic students during their rotation in the emergency ward of Mulago hospital and 6 of their supervisors. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and then imported into Atlas ti 8.3 for analysis. The data were coded and grouped into themes relating to perceptions of practice-based learning, general inductive analysis was used. The general inductive approach involved condensing the raw textual data into a brief and summary format. The summarized format was then analyzed to establish clear links between the perceptions of practice-based learning and the summary findings derived from the raw data. RESULTS: The mean age of the students was 23 ± 1.5 years. Four out of the six supervisors were Orthopaedic officers while the remaining two were principal Orthopaedic officers, four out of the six had a university degree while the other two were diploma holders. The main themes arising were hands-on skills, an unconducive learning environment, the best form of learning, and having an undefined training structure. Particularly, the perceptions included the presence of too many students on the wards during the rotation, frequent stock-outs of supplies for learning, and supervisors being overwhelmed caring for a large number of patients. CONCLUSION: Barriers to satisfactory practice-based learning were overcrowding on the wards and insufficient training materials. To improve practice-based learning, adequate learning materials are required and the number of students enrolled needs to be appropriate for the student - supervisor ratio.