On-farm deaths of dairy cows are associated with features of freestall barns.

On-farm death (OFD) of a dairy cow is always a financial loss for a farmer, and potentially a welfare issue that has to be addressed within the dairy industry. The aim of this study was to explore the associations between OFD of dairy cows, housing, and herd management in freestall barns. To achieve the goal, we followed 10,837 cows calving in 2011 in 82 herds. Data were gathered with observations and a structured interview during farm visits and from a national dairy herd improvement database. The hazard of OFD was modeled with a shared frailty survival model, with SAS 9.3 PHREG procedure (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). The study population was 58% Ayrshire and 42% Holstein cows. The median herd size and mean milk yield in the study herds were 116 cows and 9,151 kg of milk per cow per year. The overall probability of OFD was 6.0%; 1.8% of the cows died unassisted and 4.2% were euthanized. Variation in OFD percentage between individual herds was large, from 0 to 16%, accounting for 0 to 58% of all removals in the herds. Keeping close-up dry cows in their own group was associated with higher hazard of OFD [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.37] compared with keeping them in the same pen with far-off dry cows. Higher hazard on OFD was observed when barns had only one kind of calving pen; single (HR = 2.09) or group pens (HR = 1.72), compared with having both of those types. The hazard of OFD was lower if the whole herd was housed in barns or pens that had only 1 type of feed barrier at the feed bunk, namely post-and-rail (HR = 0.51) or a type with barriers between the cow's heads (HR = 0.49), compared with having 2 types. Lower OFD hazard was observed with wider than 340 cm of walking alley next to the feeding table (HR = 0.75), and with housing a whole herd in pens with only 1 type of walking alley surface, specifically slatted (HR = 0.53) or solid (HR = 0.48), compared with having both types. The hazard of OFD was higher with stalls wider than 120 cm (HR = 1.38) compared with narrower stalls. The hazard of OFD was also associated with breed, parity, and calving season. This study identified many factors that contribute to the incidence of OFD of dairy cows. The solutions for reducing on-farm mortality include housing, management, and breeding choices that are most probably herd specific.

Serial transvaginal ultrasound-guided biopsy of the porcine corpus luteum in vivo.

The aims of the present study was to develop and describe a transvaginal ultrasound-guided biopsy method for luteal tissue in the porcine and to evaluate the effects of the method on the reproductive tract, ovarian status and pregnancy status. Biopsies were performed in four multiparous sows on Days 9 and 15 of three consecutive oestrous cycles; the size and histological composition of the samples obtained were evaluated and the reproductive tract of the sows was monitored. Furthermore, biopsies were performed in 26 multiparous sows on Days 10 and 13 after insemination, and the pregnancy rate, gestation length and subsequent litter size were evaluated. RNA was extracted from the samples obtained and the quality and quantity were determined. Altogether, 76 biopsies were performed and 38 samples were obtained. Compared with sows from which no samples were obtained (n=6), sows from which one or more samples were obtained (n=24) were older (parity 5.0±2.8 vs 2.2±0.4, mean±s.d.), heavier (290±26 vs 244±27kg) and had higher back fat (11.4±2.7 vs 6.4±2.5mm; P<0.05 for all). No effect of the biopsies (P>0.05) was observed on the cyclicity and reproductive organs of the sows, or on corpus luteum diameter on Day 13 (8.9±1.0 vs 9.2±1.1mm), pregnancy rate (95% vs 96%), gestation length (115±1 vs 115±1 days) and subsequent litter size (12.7±2.5 vs 13.3±2.8) between sows from which samples were obtained and those from which no samples were obtained. The samples obtained had a diameter of 1mm and contained heterogeneous tissue with various cell types. The RNA quantity was 520±160µg per sample and the RNA integrity number was 8.5±1.0. In conclusion, an ultrasound-guided biopsy method for ovarian tissue, which can be used for gene expression studies, was established in the porcine. No effect on corpus luteum function was found.

Caudal vena cava progesterone and LH release patterns on Day 14 of gestation in primiparous sows.

The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between systemic and local progesterone secretion and LH pulsatility during implantation in the pig. Differences in progesterone concentrations measured locally in the caudal vena cava and systemically in the jugular vein were studied in eight primiparous sows on Day 14 of pregnancy. LH pulsatility was analysed for its effects on the local progesterone-releasing pattern. Mean (±s.d.) progesterone concentrations in the vena cava (65.5±19.8ngmL-1) were approximately double basal concentrations (33.6±13.1ngmL-1). Basal concentrations of progesterone and LH were calculated as the average of the lowest six values. Basal caudal vena cava and mean jugular (27.6±1.5ngmL-1) progesterone concentrations did not differ significantly. Pre- and postprandial jugular progesterone concentrations were significantly different in the morning and afternoon (P=0.025 and 0.023). Mean LH ranged from 0.24 to 0.43ngmL-1 and was approximately double as high as basal LH in individual sows. In 60.8% of cases, LH pulses were followed by a progesterone pulse within 1h. In conclusion, the present study showed that corpus luteum function appears to respond to LH pulsatility on Day 14 of pregnancy. However, the response varies at the level of individual sows. In addition, systemic postprandial decreases in progesterone were confirmed on Day 14 of pregnancy.

The spatio-temporal distribution of aromatase cytochrome in ovary throughout the canine oestrous cycle.

CONTEXT: New animal welfare legislation and ethical guidelines encourage alternative approaches for canine contraception, instead of surgical gonadectomy which is considered invasive and unjustified in healthy dogs. AIMS: Reversible contraception might be achieved by inhibition of aromatase (CYP19), an enzyme catalysing the conversion of androgens to oestrogens. This study provides insights into the spatio-temporal expression and distribution of aromatase in canine ovarian tissue. METHODS: Ovarian tissue was collected from 39 healthy and sexually mature bitches during different stages of the oestrous cycle: pro-oestrus (n =8), oestrus (n =12), dioestrus (n =9) (luteal phase) and anoestrus (n =10). Localisation of cytochrome P450 aromatase was determined by immunohistochemistry. KEY RESULTS: Aromatase activity in the dog is high during pro-oestrus, ovulation and early dioestrus. Comparing types of follicles and corpora lutea, the highest aromatase abundance was found in antral follicles and luteinising follicles, whereas corpora lutea and early antral follicles showed an intermediate presence of the enzyme. Interesting was the high abundance of aromatase in luteinising theca interna cells, prevailing over granulosa cells. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Understanding of cells involved in oestradiol production is important for targeted inhibition of oestradiol synthesis, possibly offering an approach for contraception and suppression of oestrus.

Validation of the Finnish national dairy disease register--data transfer from cow health cards to the disease register.

Information on diseases of dairy cows in Finland is entered into the national disease register. Before the data from such types of secondary database are used, the quality of the data needs to be validated. In this study, 7,324 veterinary records for culled cows were compared against records in the national disease register in the period 2002 to 2008. Evaluation of the national disease register data was done by calculating completeness and correctness values. Completeness is the proportion of events that were physically recorded in the secondary database, and correctness is the proportion of correctly recorded events of all recorded events. The use of both correctness and completeness is important when describing the accuracy of secondary data. The completeness and correctness values for the Finnish national dairy disease register were 83 and 92%, respectively. We found that 39% of all unmatched diagnostic events were unreported by the artificial insemination technician who transferred the data from cow cards to the register. Logistic regression models showed that diagnostic events for cows born into the herd had twice the odds of being transferred compared with events for purchased cows. Diagnostic events for reproductive diseases had higher odds of being transferred to the register compared with all other disease groups, and the odds for transfer of the diagnostic event decreased as the age increased. We also found that if the diagnostic event was the last diagnostic event on the cow card, then its odds of being transferred to the disease register were significantly lowered. Although the Finnish national dairy disease register has good completeness and excellent correctness values, different disease groups, age groups, origin of the cow, and timing of the diagnostic event affect how well diagnostic events are transferred to the Finnish national dairy register.

IGF-1 concentrations after weaning in young sows fed different pre-mating diets are positively associated with piglet mean birth weight at subsequent farrowing.

Pre-mating diets can influence piglet birth weight and within-litter birth weight variation and thereby piglet survival and development. The major objective of this study was to evaluate the litter characteristics of young sows whose pre-mating diets received different supplementation. The supplements included a top-dressing of 200 g, consisting of either wheat (CON) or wheat plus microfibrillated cellulose, L-carnitine or L-arginine at one of two supplementation levels (low and high) in late lactation and during the weaning-to-oestrus interval (WEI). The second objective was to investigate the role of body condition loss and IGF-1 concentration during the WEI for subsequent litter characteristics. In total, sows after their first (N =41) and second (N =15) lactation were used. One week before weaning, the sows were allocated to the seven treatments based on the number of piglets and BW loss from farrowing until 1 week before weaning. Pre-mating diets did not affect litter characteristics at subsequent farrowing. However, at subsequent farrowing, sows after their first lactation had a lower total number of piglets born per litter (18.3 v. 20.3), higher mean piglet birth weight (1365 v. 1253 g), lower CV of birth weight (20.0 v. 26.1%) and lower percentage of piglets <1000 g (11.5 v. 24.4%) than sows after their second lactation. Litter weight at second parturition was positively related to IGF-1 during the WEI after first lactation (P <0.04). Within parity, piglet mean birth weight was positively related to IGF-1 at oestrus (P <0.02). Surprisingly, within parity, a higher relative loin muscle depth loss during previous lactation was related to lower CV and SD of birth weight (P <0.05, for both). In conclusion, pre-mating diets did not affect litter characteristics at subsequent birth. However, a higher IGF-1 concentration during the WEI was positively associated with subsequent litter weight and piglet mean birth weight. Further studies should elucidate the role of IGF-1 during the WEI for subsequent litter characteristics and dietary interventions to stimulate IGF-1.

Fertility of sows fed ad libitum with a high fibre diet during pregnancy.

The effect of ad libitum (ADLIB) feeding strategy on the fertility of the group housed sow was studied in a prospective field trial during 1.5 years. All study animals farrowed under standard farrowing circumstances in crates, and they were provided with an ad libitum feeding throughout the 30-day lactation. After weaning, animals were randomly allocated to one of the two dry sow feeding strategies (AD LIB or CONT). After oestrus detection in groups, they were artificially inseminated and moved into pregnancy pens with partially slatted floor, in groups of 40 sows each. The ADLIB sows (n = 447) were loose housed and provided with ad libitum access to 7.7 MJ/kg feed high in fibre from two feeders per group. The control sows (n = 479; CONT) were also loose housed and given a standard dry sow feed in feeding stalls once a day (2.5 kg/day. The energy content of the feed was 9.3 MJ/kg NE). The feeding strategy (ADLIB vs CONT) had no effect on pregnancy rate (85.8 vs 90.9, p > 0.05), weaning to oestrus interval (7.7 vs 7.3 days, p > 0.05), piglets born alive (11.5 ± 3.5 vs 11.6 ± 3.3, p > 0.05), stillborn piglets (1.2 ± 1.8 vs 0.9 ± 1.5, p > 0.05) nor on progesterone concentration (p > 0.05). CONT sows weaned more piglets (9.7 ± 2.2 vs 9.4 ± 2.0, p < 0.01), whereas the piglets of AD LIB sows were heavier at weaning (8.8 ± 0.9 vs 8.0 ± 1.3 kg, p < 0.05). In conclusion, ad libitum feeding with a high in fibre diet during pregnancy did not affect the reproductive performance.

IGF-1 concentration patterns and their relationship with follicle development after weaning in young sows fed different pre-mating diets.

Piglet birth weight and within-litter birth weight variation are important for piglet survival and growth. Pre-mating diets may improve IGF-1 and follicle development during the weaning-to-oestrus interval (WEI) and subsequent piglet birth weight. The objective of this study was to modulate IGF-1 concentration during late lactation and the WEI of young sows by using specific pre-mating diets supplemented with microfibrillated cellulose (MF), l-carnitine (LC) or l-arginine (AR). A further objective was to investigate the relationship between IGF-1 and subsequent follicle development and oestrus and ovulation characteristics. In total, 56 first-parity and 20 second-parity sows in three consecutive batches were used for this experiment. Sows received daily either wheat (CON) or wheat plus MF, LC or AR at one of two supplementation levels (low and high) during last week of lactation and WEI. From weaning onwards, follicle and corpus luteum (CL) diameters were repeatedly measured with ultrasound. Blood samples were collected during the WEI for IGF-1 and on day 21 of pregnancy for progesterone analyses, respectively. Insulin-like growth factor-1 concentration, follicle diameter, oestrus and ovulation characteristics and CL diameter were not affected by pre-mating diets. Low IGF-1 class (≤156 ng/ml, N = 22) sows had smaller follicles at weaning (3.5 v. 3.8 mm, P < 0.05) and a longer weaning-to-ovulation interval (147.2 v. 129.8 h, P < 0.05) than high IGF-1 class sows. In first-parity sows, high loin muscle depth (LM) loss sows (≥8%, N = 28) had lower IGF-1 concentrations at weaning (167 v. 214 ng/ml, P < 0.05) compared to low LM loss sows (<8%, N = 28). However, after weaning, IGF-1 concentrations increased and did not differ between high LM loss and low LM loss sows. In conclusion, the different supplemented compounds in pre-mating diets did not improve IGF-1 concentrations around weaning in young sows. Furthermore, high body condition loss caused lower IGF-1 concentrations at weaning, but these levels rapidly recovered after weaning and were related to follicle development and the interval from weaning to ovulation.

Administration of aromatase inhibitor MPV-2213ad to blue fox vixens (Vulpes lagopus) as a model for contraception in female dogs.

The interest in non-surgical approaches to contraception and fertility control in female dogs has increased in recent years. In this study the effect of an aromatase inhibitor (finrozole) was evaluated in fur production animals, farmed blue fox vixens, as a model for contraception in bitches. A total of 80 vixens were divided into 4 groups, receiving orally placebo (A) or finrozole 0.5 mg/kg (B), 3.5 mg/kg (C) or 24.5 mg/kg (D) for 21 consecutive days beginning in the pre-ovulatory period of heat. Monitoring of the vixens included clinical signs of heat, measurement of vaginal electrical resistance (VER) as well as oestradiol and progesterone concentrations in plasma. The approximate relation of the start of treatment to ovulation varied from 11 days before to one day after ovulation provided that the LH peak occurred 0.5-2 days before the VER peak and ovulation was then estimated to occur 2 days after the LH peak. Seventy vixens were artificially inseminated within 8 h after a 50 Ω decline in vaginal electrical resistance was detected. Ten vixens were not inseminated. Pregnancy was confirmed by transabdominal ultrasound examination and birth of cubs was recorded. The pregnancy rates in the groups were 89.5% (A), 81.3% (B), 55.6% (C) and 52.9% (D). The average number of live born pups in the four groups was 9.4 (A), 7.0 (B), 5.8 (C), and 3.8 (D), respectively. No deleterious effects (for instance malformations) of finrozole on pups could be verified. The administration of finrozole did not have a significant effect on oestradiol parameters and VER values in vixens. Progesterone values were significantly higher in treatment groups compared with the placebo group. The results indicate that pregnancy could be avoided by finrozole provided that doses of ≥3.5 mg/kg were used and the treatment was initiated at least four days before the day of artificial insemination. This corresponds with two to six days before ovulation provided that the LH peak occurred 0.5-2 days before the VER peak and that ovulation then occurred in average 2 days after the LH peak.

Uterine insemination with a standard AI dose in a sow pool system.

The effect of uterine AI with a standard dose of spermatozoa on fertility of the sow was studied in a field trial. The trial involved a sow pool system with 440 sows using AI as the primary method of breeding. Sows were twice a day checked for oestrus symptoms by back pressure test in front of a boar on days 3-6 after weaning. When in standing heat, sows were randomly allocated into either a uterine insemination group (UTER, n = 157) or standard AI group (CONT, n = 169) and bred accordingly using 3 billion spermatozoa in 80 ml of extender. In both treatment groups, insemination was repeated once if the sow was still receptive 24 h later. Using pregnancy (farrowed or not) and live-born litter size as the outcome variables, a logistic and linear regression approach, respectively, was taken to study the effect of the following factors: treatment (UTER vs CONT), AI operator, breed, satellite herd preceding weaning, parity, weaning-to-oestrus interval and length of lactation. Overall, live-born litter size was 11.3 +/- 2.9, repeat breeding rate 4.2% and farrowing rate 91.2%. In the UTER group, 93.6% of inseminated sows farrowed, whereas farrowing rate for the CONT group was 88.8% (p = 0.13). Intrauterine insemination with a standard AI dose did not result in a significant improvement in the live-born litter size (11.5 +/- 2.8 for the UTER and 11.1 +/- 3.0 for the CONT sows, respectively, p = 0.13). However, the preceding satellite herd had a highly significant effect on the live-born litter size (12.4 +/- 2.6; 11.1 +/- 2.9; 10.8 +/- 2.9 and 10.9 +/- 2.9 for the four satellite herds, p < 0.01). We conclude that uterine insemination did not have a significant effect on live-born litter size and farrowing rate and we also conclude that satellite herd appears to have a major effect on fertility in a sow pool system.

Re-modelling the piggery breeding unit may affect the farrowing rate.

The objective of this retrospective cohort study was to clarify the effect of re-modelling the breeding unit on farrowing rate. The original study population included 63 sow herds that participated in the Finnish herd surveillance system. In these herds, the breeding units were re-modelled between 1995 and 2002. Information about the production system and other herd data for the last year before and the second year after re-modelling were available for 47 herds. The herds had an average of 68.5 (SD 45) sows per herd. Data were collected during one farm visit per herd. Initially, all herds had individual cages in their breeding units. The piggeries had either re-modelled their cages or switched to a group housing system with deep-litter, solid or slatted (partly or totally) floors. Farrowing rates were gathered from the national database, and data were tested with a linear regression model. Re-modelling did not have an effect on farrowing rate if initial reproductive performance of the herd was neglected. However, when farms were stratified according to performance prior to the beginning of study, namely into 'farms with initially high farrowing rate' (HF) and 'farms with initially low farrowing rate' (LF), the re-modelling had a significant effect on farrowing rate. In the HF farms, re-modelling caused a decrease in farrowing rate. Correspondingly, farrowing rate increased after remodelling in the LF farms. Farrowing rate was also influenced by mean parity of sows and by proportion of sows culled because of leg problems. This study could not show a profound impact of the design of the breeding unit on the fertility of the sow in the modern commercial production environment if the farm's reproductive performance before re-modelling was neglected. However, when initial performance was taken into account, re-modelling revealed significant, although varying effects on farrowing rate.

Effect of GnRH dose on occurrence of short oestrous cycles and LH response in cyclic dairy heifers.

Prostaglandin F(2 alpha) (PGF(2 alpha)) and GnRH treatments given 24 h apart have been shown to result in short oestrous cycles (8-12 days) in some cows and heifers. The differences in responses may depend on the dose of GnRH. Therefore, the effect of the dose of GnRH on occurrence of short cycles and LH response was studied here. Oestrus was induced with dexcloprostenol (0.15 mg) in two groups of Ayrshire heifers. A second luteolysis was induced similarly on day 7 after ovulation; 24 h after PGF(2 alpha) treatment, the heifers were administered either a high (0.5 mg, n = 15, group T500) or low (0.1 mg, n = 10, group T100) dose of gonadorelin. Blood samples for progesterone analyses were collected daily from the second PGF(2 alpha) administration to the second ovulation after the PGF(2 alpha) injection. Beginning 24 h after the GnRH treatment, ovaries were examined by transrectal ultrasonography every 6 h until ovulation, and daily between day 4 and the next ovulation. Five heifers from both groups were sampled for LH analyses via a jugular catheter every 30 min from 1 h before to 6 h after the GnRH administration. Short oestrous cycles were detected in 7 of 10 cases in group T100 and in 12 of 15 cases in group T500. No significant differences in LH responses were detected between the groups. In group T500, the rise in LH concentration tended to be somewhat slower than in group T100. The dose of GnRH (0.1 vs 0.5 mg) did not affect the occurrence of short oestrous cycles and LH response.

Effect of the environment on the physiology of the sow during late pregnancy, farrowing and early lactation.

We investigated the effect of two types of housing on the duration of farrowing and the physiology of sows before and after farrowing. We assigned 20 sows (PEN) to farrowing pens (210 cm x 335 cm) enriched with straw bedding and 18 sows (CRATE) were placed in farrowing crates (80 cm x 210 cm) with no bedding material. We sampled the animals during period A (from day -5 before farrowing to day +1 of lactation) and during period B (from days +2 to +5 of lactation). We took daily venous blood samples for progesterone measurements and four salivary samples per day (at 09:00, 11:00, 13:00 and 15:00) for cortisol determination. In addition, intensive blood sampling was performed in 18 catheterised sows (9 PEN and 9 CRATE) to determine the level of oxytocin during farrowing. The treatment had no effect on litter size, piglet mortality at birth and weaning, growth of the piglets between days 1 and 5 of life. We found no significant difference in the cortisol concentration between the two groups during period A (p=0.36). Significant difference was found in period B, where the CRATE group had a higher concentration of cortisol than the PEN group (p=0.03). Progesterone concentration did not differ between the two groups (p=0.80). The duration of farrowing was on average 93 min longer in the CRATE sows (n=15), with a mean of 311+/-35 min (mean+/-S.D.), than in the PEN sows (n=19), with a mean of 218+/-24 min (p=0.03). In addition, the mean interval between each piglet expulsion was longer in the CRATE group (n=11), with a mean of 25+/-4 min, than in the PEN group (n=15) with a mean of 16+/-2 min (p=0.05). During farrowing, the post-expulsion oxytocin pulses average tended to be higher in the PEN group (77.6+/-47.6 ng/ml) than in the CRATE group (38.1+/-24.6 pg/ml) (p=0.08). The concentration of oxytocin strongly affected the duration of farrowing (p<0.001). In conclusion, this study showed that the environment influences the physiology of the sow during farrowing and early lactation.

Photoperiod and luteinizing hormone secretion in domestic and wild pigs.

During seasonal anoestrus (long-days), oestradiol can effectively inhibit the pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) in sheep. The aim of our trial was to determine whether the same regulatory mechanism exists in the pig. Altogether, 20 ovariectomized and oestradiol-implanted gilts (16 domestic pigs, 4 European wild boars) were randomly allocated to two treatment groups. The first group was kept under a short-day light-dark cycle of 8L:16D, and the second group under a long-day light regime of 16L:8D. After a 6-week treatment period, blood samples were taken at 20-min intervals for 12h. After sampling, the light regimens were switched. Sampling was then repeated following another 6 weeks of treatment. In both treatment groups, 2.3 LH pulses occurred every 12h. The basal LH level was 0.7+/-0.4 ng/ml for the short-day group and 1.0+/-0.5 ng/ml for the long-day group. The mean LH level was 0.9+/-0.4 and 1.3+/-0.6 ng/ml and the LH pulse amplitude 0.5+/-0.4 and 0.6+/-0.5 ng/ml, respectively. The basal and mean LH levels were therefore lower in short-day gilts (P<0.05), while LH pulse amplitude and frequency remained unaffected by treatment. In conclusion, the 6-week period under two different light regimes resulted in higher basal LH concentration in long-day gilts but was not able to produce changes in LH frequency in prepubertal gilts.

Housing during early pregnancy affects fertility and behaviour of sows.

From 1.1.2013 EU legislation will permit stall-housing of dry sows for only 4 weeks post-service. Stalls are associated with compromised animal welfare, but group housing comes with risks from social confrontations. Studies on housing effects on fertility have produced contradictory results as systems are inconsistently defined. Effects of housing on pregnancy rate 28 days post-service (P28), early disruption of pregnancy (EDP) and behaviour were investigated in 12 replicates of 40 sows. Half of the animals were stalled (treatment S, mean parity 2.4) and half group-housed adjacent on 5.1 m(2) deep litter per sow (treatment G, mean parity 2.3). Pregnancy was detected using real-time ultrasound. An EDP-diagnosis required a drop of salivary progesterone concentration from >15.9 to <15.9 mmol/l in a series of samples taken on days 17, 20, 24 and 27 post-service. Behaviour was scan sampled on day 27 for 120 min with 10-min intervals. Data was analysed using mixed regression models in MLwiN. Treatment S increased the odds for P28 with 2.3 and the pregnancy rate of a treatment group with 0.1 compared with G. G increased the odds for EDP with 4.6. Treatment did not affect total exploratory or total passive behaviour. S sows explored floor and fixtures (not bedding) more and performed more passive sitting than G sows. Social stress may have caused the impaired reproductive performance in G sows. S sows showed behavioural signs of decreased welfare, but no corresponding reproductive effects. An interdisciplinary approach is needed when evaluating the appropriateness of housing systems.

Short or long day light regimes may not affect reproductive performance in the sow.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of short or long day light regimes on the reproductive performance in the sow. The study comprised approximately 1300 sows and their 3400 breedings in three commercial sow pools, in which a batch farrowing of 40 sows was employed. Each batch remained in the farrowing unit for 8 weeks under either a short day (10 h light, 14 h dark) or a long day (14 h light, 10 h dark) light regime. After weaning and transportation to the central unit, all sows were kept under the long day regime until they were moved back to the farrowing unit. Production results for each individual sow were recorded. The effect of the two different light regimes on the farrowing rate (FR) and on the weaning-to-oestrous interval was evaluated using logistic and Poisson regression models, respectively. The light regime affected none of the parameters significantly. The FR in June, July and August did, however, drop below that in December, January and February (OR 0.7, p < 0.05). The FR was affected by the sow pool (p < 0.01). Parity two sows exhibited a lower FR (OR 0.5, p = 0.05) and higher incidence of delayed first oestrus (IRR 2.7, p < 0.01) than did older sows. This study indicates that despite an artificial light regime, sows may still react to changes in season. In conclusion, use of simple light regime to obtain complete control over reproductive performance appears to be difficult.

Prolonged parturition and impaired placenta expulsion increase the risk of postpartum metritis and delay uterine involution in sows.

It was hypothesized that prolonged parturition and impaired placenta expulsion increase the risk of postpartum metritis and delay uterine involution. At parturition, for 99 Yorkshire x Large White sows (parity 2-5), we determined the number of liveborn (NLP; 14.8 ± 3.4) and stillborn piglets (NSP; 1.1 ± 1.1), farrowing duration (FAR, time between first and last piglet; 333 ± 249 min), placenta expulsion duration (PLA, time between first and last placental part; 292 ± 241 min) and number of expelled placental parts (PART; 3.0 ± 1.0). FAR was categorized as 'normal' (<300 min; n = 44/99) or 'prolonged' (>300 min; n = 55/99). The relative PLA (rPLA; (PLA * 100)/FAR; 76 ± 101%) and the relative PART (rPART; (PART * 100)/(NLP + NSP); 22 ± 8%) were calculated and placenta expulsion was categorized as 'normal' (rPLA and rPART > 10%; n = 93/99) or 'impaired' (relPLA and relPART < 10%; n = 6/99). We also recorded whether manual palpation occurred (Yes/No) and/or oxytocin was used (Yes/No). After parturition, an ultrasound examination of the uterus was performed once for each sow between the 2nd and 7th day postpartum and the uterine size (mean sectional area of three to five uterine cross-sections) and intrauterine fluid accumulation (Yes/No) were recorded. Uterine size was categorized as 'normal' (n = 55/99) or 'enlarged' (n = 44/99) and used as an indicator of delayed uterine involution. Intrauterine fluid was used as an indicator of metritis. Prolonged FAR (35/54, 2.0 ± 0.5, 13.1, 7.6; n/N, ß ± SE, Wald χ2, Odds; P = 0.001), manual palpation (12/17, 1.5 ± 0.7, 4.4, 4.3; P = 0.036), oxytocin administration (18/31, - 1.5 ± 0.7, 4.7, 0.2, P = 0.040) and NSP ≥ 2 (15/21, 1.4 ± 0.7, 3.8, 3.9; P = 0.052) were associated with increased uterine size (n = 44/99) and NSP ≥ 2 (7/21, 2.6 ± 0.9, 8.7, 13.7; P = 0.003), manual palpation (10/17, 1.8 ± 0.8, 5.0, 6.0; P = 0.025), prolonged FAR (13/15, 1.7 ± 0.8, 4.3, 5.7; P = 0.039) and impaired PLA (4/6, 3.3 ± 1.7, 4.0, 26.9; P = 0.044) with intrauterine fluid accumulation (n = 15/99). The results confirm the hypothesis, indicating that prolonged parturition and impaired placenta expulsion increased the risk for postpartum metritis. Stillborn piglets and manual palpation were also identified as risk factors. Postpartum metritis delays uterine involution whereas the use of exogenous oxytocin supports it.

Case-control study of factors associated with arthritis detected at slaughter in pigs from 49 farms.

Data were collected on the housing, management and disease factors in the weaning and finishing units of 49 integrated pig herds, 24 of them with a high incidence of arthritis at slaughter (case herds) and 25 with a low incidence (control herds). A median of 5.2 per cent (range 3.7 to 12.4 per cent) of the slaughtered pigs in the case herds had arthritis at meat inspection, compared with 2.2 per cent (range 0.3 to 2.8 per cent) in the control herds. In the farrowing units, high clinical sign scores for the lactating sows and piglets less than one week old and a low age at castration were associated with the case herds. In the weaning units, the herds with open partitions between the pens were 5.6 times more likely to be a case herd than the herds with solid walls. A higher age at weaning and moving the piglets at weaning from the farrowing pen instead of the sows decreased the likelihood of being a case herd. In the finishing units, a higher score for clinical signs, using a proper hospital pen, disinfecting the pens between the groups and using a feeding plan increased the likelihood of being a case herd. In total, 145 condemned joints, a median of four (up to six per herd), were collected at the slaughterhouse. In the case herds, 71 of 76 joints (93.4 per cent) had lesions related to osteochondrosis and in the control herds 66 of 69 joints (95.6 per cent) had such lesions. Only two of 11 joints from the case herds and one of 12 joints from the control herds that were examined bacteriologically were positive for Stapylococcus aureus and/or Streptococcus species.

The effect of litter size, parity and farrowing duration on placenta expulsion and retention in sows.

The hypothesis was that a prolonged parturition impairs placenta expulsion and can lead to retained placentas in sows. Furthermore, we hypothesized that application of oxytocin around the time of expulsion of the first placental part improves placenta expulsion. We recorded 142 parturitions of 101 Yorkshire x Large White sows. We determined parity, gestation length, number of liveborn and stillborn piglets, farrowing duration (time between first and last piglet) and the outcome variables: number of expelled placental parts, placenta expulsion duration (time between first and last placental part), first placental part expulsion (time between last piglet and first placental part) and last placental part expulsion (time between last piglet and last placental part). The relationship between farrowing duration and each of the outcome variables was investigated using four distinct multivariable models. Use of oxytocin (used in 44 out of 142 parturitions) increased number of expelled placental parts (3.8 ± 0.2 vs. 2.9 ± 0.3; P = 0.035), decreased the placenta expulsion duration (172 ± 44 vs. 328 ± 26 min; P = 0.011) and time of last placental part expulsion (148 ± 48 vs. 300 ± 24 min; P = 0.025). If oxytocin was not used, farrowing duration obeyed a quadratic relationship with the number of expelled placental parts (P = 0.001), placenta expulsion duration (P = 0.002) and time of last placental part expulsion (P = 0.024). If oxytocin was used, number of expelled placental parts was positively associated with number of liveborn piglets (ß = 0.2 ± 0.1; P = 0.002) and affected by parity. 5th parity sows expelled more placental parts (4.3 ± 0.4) than 4th (3.2 ± 0.3; P = 0.024) and 3rd parity sows (2.7 ± 0.4; P = 0.008). Furthermore, placenta expulsion duration was positively associated with number of liveborn piglets (ß = 18 ± 8 min; P = 0.025). First placental part expulsion was negatively correlated with farrowing duration (ß = 0.3 ± 0.1; P = 0.001). Sows that experienced total (no expulsion of placental parts; n = 4) and partial retained placentas (no expulsion of placental parts after birth of the last piglet; n = 4) had longer farrowing durations (1009 ± 275 and 734 ± 136 min) than sows with no retained placentas (369 ± 202 min; P = 0.021 and P = 0.004). The results show that a prolonged parturition impaired and oxytocin improved placenta expulsion in sows. Furthermore, retained placentas occurred in 3-6% of the sows and was correlated with a prolonged parturition.

Lameness and fertility of sows and gilts in randomly selected loose-housed herds in Finland.

The prevalence of lameness among 646 sows and gilts in 21 selected herds was determined; 8.8 per cent of the animals were lame and the most common clinical diagnoses were osteochondrosis, infected skin lesions and claw lesions. The lame animals had higher serum concentrations of haptoglobin and C-reactive protein than the sound animals. Animals housed on slatted floors had twice the odds of being lame and 3.7 times the odds of being severely lame than animals housed on solid floors. Yorkshire pigs had 2.7 times the odds of being lame than Landrace or crossbred animals. Higher parity and the use of roughage decreased the odds of the sows not becoming pregnant; however, lameness was not a risk factor for non-pregnancy.