Protein conformation determines the sensibility to high pressure treatment of infectious scrapie prions.

Application of high pressure can be used for gentle pasteurizing of food, minimizing undesirable alterations such as vitamin losses and changes in taste and color. In addition, pressure has become a useful tool for investigating structural changes in proteins. Treatments of proteins with high pressure can reveal conformations that are not obtainable by other physical variables like temperature, since pressure favors structural transitions accompanied with smaller volumes. Here, we discuss both the potential use of high pressure to inactivate infectious TSE material and the application of this thermodynamic parameter for the investigation of prion folding. This review summarizes our findings on the effects of pressure on the structure of native infectious scrapie prions in hamster brain homogenates and on the structure of infectious prion rods isolated from diseased hamsters brains. Native prions were found to be pressure sensitive, whereas isolated prions revealed an extreme pressure-resistant structure. The discussion will be focused on the different pressure behavior of these prion isoforms, which points out differences in the protein structure that have not been taken into consideration before.

Immunity against NS3 protein of classical swine fever virus does not protect against lethal challenge infection.

Classical swine fever is a highly contagious disease of swine caused by classical swine fever virus, an OIE list A pathogen. In the European Union the virus has been eradicated from the domestic pig population and prophylactic immunization has been banned. Nevertheless, intervention immunizations using marker vaccines are one possibility to deal with reintroduced CSFV. At present, baculovirus-expressed E2 protein is used as such a marker vaccine. However, this vaccine cannot fully protect against viral spread; hence the use of another subunit, or of a combination of two or more subunits, might be beneficial. Therefore the immunological effects of nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) on the humoral as well as the cellular arms of the immune system were investigated. Although effectors of both sides of the immune system were stimulated by application of recombinant NS3 protein, no protection against lethal CSFV challenge could be achieved.

Identification of novel foot-and-mouth disease virus specific T-cell epitopes in c/c and d/d haplotype miniature swine.

To identify foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) specific T-cell epitopes within the non-structural protein 3D in swine, pentadecapeptides were tested in proliferation and Interferon-gamma ELISPOT assays using lymphocytes from two strains of inbred miniature pigs (c/c and d/d haplotype) experimentally infected with FMDV. Lymphocytes of c/c pigs recognized peptides from three different regions in 3D, d/d lymphocytes recognized peptides from two regions, one of them being adjacent to an epitope of c/c pigs and comprising amino acid residues 346-370. Analyses of the response of d/d lymphocytes against peptides representing the structural protein 1A revealed another novel T-cell epitope. Investigation of the phenotype of responding lymphocytes showed a response of CD4(+)CD8(+)MHC-class-II(+) cells, identifying them as activated T-helper cells. This is the first report on FMDV specific T-cell epitopes recognized by swine leukocyte antigen (SLA) inbred swine and provides information useful for the design of novel vaccines against FMDV.

Infectivity of prion protein bound to stainless steel wires: a model for testing decontamination procedures for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.

OBJECTIVES: To establish an animal model to study transmissible spongiform encephalopathy using hamsters and steel wires contaminated with infectious brain materials as transfer vehicles, and, based on this model, to test decontamination procedures against the infectious prion proteins on the steel wires as a near real situation bioassay. DESIGN: Infectious brain materials were given to healthy hamsters intracerebrally either as a suspension or as dried materials on the surface of steel wires. The animals were observed for 18 months. During this period, animals showing definitive clinical signs were euthanized. Decontamination studies were performed by reprocessing contaminated steel wires with different disinfection agents and procedures before implantation. RESULTS: Pathological prion proteins were able to bind to the steel wires and caused disease after the contaminated wires were implanted in the brains of hamsters. When the contaminated wires were treated with different reprocessing procedures before implantation, infectivity was reduced, which was manifested directly by prolonged survival time of the test animals. These results show that this model can be used as a bioassay to validate reprocessing procedures for surgical instruments. CONCLUSIONS: At the time of submission of this article, only the group of hamsters incubated with wires reprocessed with an alkaline detergent, followed by sterilization with a modified cycle in a hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilizer (4 injections), showed no clinical signs of disease and remained alive. Two animals from the group receiving sodium hydroxide followed by autoclaving (at 134 degrees C for 18 minutes) died. Furthermore, the tested enzymatic cleaning agent seemed to have no positive effect.

Interferon-gamma response of PBMC indicates productive pseudorabies virus (PRV) infection in swine.

In Chinese Meishan/German Landrace cross-bred swine F2 generation interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was determined directly ex vivo at different time points after survival of a virulent pseudorabies virus (PRV) infection. This reactivity was compared with the reactivity of naïve PBMC. Significant IFN-gamma production was determined in ELISA and ELISPOT only after in vitro PBMC re-stimulation with PRV and not with the closely related bovine herpesvirus BHV-1. The PRV-specific IFN-gamma secretion from re-stimulated PBMC showed high levels 6 days after infection, before the presence of serum antibodies, and it persisted at a high level over a 3 months period. The response of a group of eight piglets infected intranasally with PRV varied. Only two animals showed the expected typical fever response. PRV specific IFN-gamma production by PBMC clearly indicated that infection had occurred. Early significant IFN-gamma production by primed PBMC turned out to be a reliable and specific ex vivo marker for cellular response against productive PRV infection in swine before antibody formation.

Pressure/temperature combined treatments of precursors yield hormone-like peptides with pyroglutamate at the N terminus.

Peptides containing the cyclic product of glutamine at the N terminus are usually biologically active. If the cyclization of glutamine was associated with a volume reduction, pressure should displace the equilibrium in the direction of the lower volume. Here, results in model solutions and in whey are discussed, showing that the theorized cyclization of glutamine in Gln-His-ProNH(2) or Gln-Leu-ProNH(2) is significantly accelerated during the application of heat and even more strongly when elevated temperature and pressure combinations are used. The reaction rate depended on the intensity of the pressure treatment, the pH, and the nature of the amino acids adjacent to glutamine. The products of the reaction were identified as thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and [Leu(2)]TRH. The reported reactions could affect the naturally balanced concentration of short-chain peptides in foods and therefore induce unpredictable biological effects.

Inhibition of prion amplification by expression of dominant inhibitory mutants--a systematic insertion mutagenesis study.

Until now it is still not clear which structural elements of the prion protein (PrP) are involved in its conversion process. Characterisation of these essential regions would help to understand the conversion process itself and might help to develop specific therapeutic approaches to inhibit PrP(res) formation by dominant inhibitory mutations. To address this important question 33 evenly spaced insertion mutants were generated spanning the entire sequence of the murine 3F4-tagged PrP. The mutants were expressed by retroviral transduction in three different scrapie infected cell lines (ScN2a; SMB[RC040]; SMB[22F]). The convertibility was affected not only by introducing the insertion in the putatively refolded region (aa100-170), but also in the C-terminus of PrP (up to aa214). Moreover, dominant inhibitory effects on conversion were observed for PrP-mutants at four distinguished regions (aa100-112; aa130-154; aa166-172, aa196-200). Computer based structural analysis revealed that these segments were organized in two structurally clearly separated regions supporting the idea that they could function as protein-protein interaction sites which are necessary during seed formation.

Generation of inducible hepatitis C virus transgenic mouse lines.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the causative agent of most cases of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) affecting more than 170 million people world-wide. Progress in elucidating the nature of HCV and the development of new therapeutic strategies is hampered fundamentally by the absence of adequate small animal models simulating natural HCV infection. The creation of conditional mouse lines with the tetracycline-controlled gene expression system holds new perspectives for simulation of wild-type HCV infection in a small animal model. Transgenic mice were established with tetracycline-inducible coexpression of HCV core or HCV open reading frame (ORF) and luciferase. In long-term induction experiments, mice were examined for immunopathological changes after expression of HCV proteins. Inducible and liver-specific expression of transgenes was detected by Western blot, immunoprecipitation, luciferase assay and in vivo imaging of bioluminescence of luciferase in genetically modified mice. Ectopic expression levels were determined quantitatively in the liver, kidney, heart and spleen of mice in the induced and non-induced state. During long-term induction an elevation of aminotransaminases (ALT) was observed only in HCV core/ORF-expressing mice, but HCV-specific immune response was not confirmed by in vitro immunological assays. The histology of liver sections provided evidence of steatosis, which was correlated with an inflammatory response. The inducible HCV-transgenic mouse lines provide further evidence of liver pathogenesis in the presence of inflammation during liver-specific expression of HCV proteins and offer new insights into the effects of temporally and spatially controlled protein expression of HCV.

Identification of a novel foot-and-mouth disease virus specific T-cell epitope with immunodominant characteristics in cattle with MHC serotype A31.

To identify foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) specific T-cell epitopes within the entire polyprotein sequence of the virus, 442 overlapping pentadecapeptides were tested in proliferation assays using lymphocytes from cattle experimentally infected with FMDV. Four months post-infection cells from all investigated animals (n = 4) responded by proliferation and interferon-gamma production to a peptide located on the structural protein 1D (VP1), amino acid residues 66-80. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) serotyping of the investigated cattle indicated that all animals shared the MHC serotype A31 which comprises the class II allele DRB3 0701. This may explain the common recognition of this newly discovered epitope. Responses to other peptides could only be observed in one animal and rapidly declined during the time course of the study. These observations point to an immunodominant role of this epitope located on the protein 1D in cattle with MHC serotype A31.

Efficient priming against classical swine fever with a safe glycoprotein E2 expressing Orf virus recombinant (ORFV VrV-E2).

An increasing demand in livestock animal husbandry for intervention or emergency vaccination strategies requires a rapid onset of protection linked to prevention of infectious agent spread. Using the new recombinant parapoxvirus (PPV) Orf virus (ORFV) as a vaccine expressing the CSFV E2 glycoprotein we demonstrate that a single intra-muscular application confers solid protection. In the prime only concept, multi-site application of the vector vaccine turned out to be superior to single-site application as no pyrexia occurred after virulent CSFV challenge and CSFV neutralizing serum antibodies regularly were detectable before challenge. Vector virus vaccinated swine were able to cope with the lymphocyte and in particular B-cell depression in peripheral blood after challenge showing no clinical signs and no viremia. Early after challenge CSFV-specific IFN gamma production (IFN-gamma) and high neutralizing serum antibody titers clearly differentiated naïve from vaccinated and protected animals. After CSFV challenge neutralizing serum antibodies titers in vector vaccinated swine were significantly higher than those in sera from live attenuated vaccine primed animals. Horizontal challenge virus transmission was prevented under strict sentinel isolation before mingling but not in next-door stables separated by a wooden barrier at the day of challenge. The presence of CSFV-specific pre-challenge serum antibodies although in low titers is a good prognostic parameter for solid protection after ORFV vector vaccination even when a significant CSFV-specific IFN-gamma production was not detectable before challenge. A heterologous prime-boost regimen as a combination of prime with baculovirus-expressed glycoprotein E2 followed by boost with the parapoxvirus vector turned out to be a better immune stimulant than a homologous prime/boost with the modified live CSFV vaccine. A similar beneficial effect became evident when the challenge infection mimicked the booster vaccination after a single PPV vector prime.

Immunomodulatory effect of plasmids co-expressing cytokines in classical swine fever virus subunit gp55/E2-DNA vaccination.

The aim of this study was to determine the immunomodulatory effects of IL-12, IL-18 and CD154 (CD40 ligand, CD40L) in DNA-vaccination against the classical swine fever virus. Four recombinant plasmids were constructed including the CSFV coding region for the glycoprotein gp55/E2 alone or together with porcine IL-12, IL-18 or CD154 genes. Five groups of four pigs each were immunized intramuscularly (i.m.) three times with the respective constructs. The control group was inoculated with empty plasmid DNA. Eighteen days after the final immunization, the pigs were challenged with a lethal dose of CSFV strain Eystrup and monitored for a further 16 days. This study showed that co-delivery of IL-18 and CD154 induced an earlier appearance of serum antibodies, reduced B-cell deficiency after infection and protected pigs against a lethal CSFV infection. In contrast, co-delivery of IL-12 led to a reduced titer of neutralizing antibodies and protection against a lethal CSFV challenge in comparison to the other pigs and to pigs that were immunized with a gp55/E2 plasmid alone.

Dual nature of the infectious prion protein revealed by high pressure.

Crude brain homogenates of terminally diseased hamsters infected with the 263K strain of scrapie (PrP(Sc)) and purified prion fibrils were heated or pressurized at 800 megapascals and 60 degrees C for 2 h in different buffers and in water. Prion proteins (PrP) were analyzed for their proteinase K resistance in immunoblots and for their infectivity in hamster bioassays. A notable decrease in the proteinase K resistance of unpurified prion proteins, probably because of pressure-induced changes in the protein conformation of native PrP(Sc) or the N-truncated PrP-(27-30), could be demonstrated when pressurized at initially neutral conditions in several buffers and in water but not in a slightly acidic pH. A subsequent 6-7 log(10) reduction of infectious units/g in phosphate-buffered saline buffer, pH 7.4, was found. The proteinase K-resistant core was also not detectable after purification of prions extracted from pressurized samples, confirming pressure effects at the level of the secondary structure of prion proteins. However, opposite results were found after pressurizing purified prions, arguing for the existence of pressure-sensitive beta-structures (PrP(Sc)(DeltaPsen)) and extremely pressure-resistant beta-structures (PrP(Sc)(DeltaPres)). Remarkably, after the first centrifugation step at 540,000 x g during isolation, prions remained proteinase K-resistant when pressurized in all tested buffers and in water. It is known that purified fibrils retain infectivity, but the isolated protein (full and N-truncated) behaved differently from native PrP(Sc) under pressure, suggesting a kind of semicrystalline polymer structure.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus can utilize the C-terminal extension of coxsackievirus A9 VP1 for cell infection.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is known to employ the conserved Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) tripeptide located on the variable betaG-betaH loop of the VP1 capsid protein for binding to cells. Coxsackievirus A9 (CAV9) also carries an RGD sequence, but on a short C-terminal extension of its VP1 and in a different amino acid context. This apparent relationship raised the question of whether insertion of the heterologous CAV9 sequence into FMDV would influence infection by the genetically modified FMDV. Four VP1 mutants were generated by PCR mutagenesis of a full-length FMDV cDNA plasmid. After transfection of BHK-21 cells, viral protein synthesis and virus particle formation could be detected. Two of the four mutants, mV9b and mV9d, could be propagated in BHK-21 cells, but not in CV-1 cells. Both of these mutants contained 17 amino acids of the C terminus of CAV9 VP1. Infection of BHK cells could be specifically inhibited by rabbit immune serum raised against a synthetic peptide representing the amino acid sequence of the C-terminal extension of CAV9 VP1. This demonstrated the direct involvement of the inserted sequence in cell infection. In fact, genetically modified FMDV O(1)K was capable of employing the VP1 C-terminal RGD region of CAV9 for infection of BHK cells. In addition, these results show that, even in cell culture-adapted viruses, the RGD-containing betaG-betaH loop plays an important role in virus infectivity.

Cloning, sequencing and expression of porcine CD40 ligand in Escherichia coli and human and porcine cells.

The CD40L ligand (CD40L) plays an important role in the interaction between antigen-specific T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. The porcine CD40L encoding gene was isolated from porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) using RT-PCR. Sequence analysis of the cloned CD40L gene showed an open reading frame of 786 base pairs encoding a 262 amino acid protein with a predicted molecular mass of 29 kD. The deduced amino acid sequence of the porcine CD40L shared 82%, 88% and 93% similarity with the CD40L protein of mouse, human and cattle. The isolated CD40L sequence was expressed as a hexahistidine fusion protein in Escherichia coli and purified by affinity chromatography. The analysis of the CD40L-expression in human 293 and porcine MAX cells by immunofluorescence showed its location on the cell surface.

Multiple amino acid residues within the rabbit prion protein inhibit formation of its abnormal isoform.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are neurological diseases that are associated with the conversion of the normal host-encoded prion protein (PrP-sen) to an abnormal protease-resistant form, PrP-res. Transmission of the TSE agent from one species to another is usually inefficient and accompanied by a prolonged incubation time. Species barriers to infection by the TSE agent are of particular importance given the apparent transmission of bovine spongiform encephalopathy to humans. Among the few animal species that appear to be resistant to infection by the TSE agent are rabbits. They survive challenge with the human kuru and Creutzfeldt-Jakob agents as well as with scrapie agent isolated from sheep or mice. Species barriers to the TSE agent are strongly influenced by the PrP amino acid sequence of both the donor and recipient animals. Here we show that rabbit PrP-sen does not form PrP-res in murine tissue culture cells persistently infected with the mouse-adapted scrapie agent. Unlike other TSE species barriers that have been studied, critical amino acid residues that inhibit PrP-res formation are located throughout the rabbit PrP sequence. Our results suggest that the resistance of rabbits to infection by the TSE agent is due to multiple rabbit PrP-specific amino acid residues that result in a PrP structure that is unable to refold to the abnormal isoform associated with disease.

Characterization of chimeric enzymes between caprine arthritis--encephalitis virus, maedi--visna virus and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 integrases expressed in Escherichia coli.

In order to investigate the functions of the three putative lentiviral integrase (IN) protein domains on viral DNA specificity and target site selection, enzymatically active chimeric enzymes were constructed using the three wild-type IN proteins of caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV), maedi-visna virus (MVV) and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). The chimeric enzymes were expressed in Escherichia coli, purified by affinity chromatography and analysed in vitro for IN-specific endonuclease and integration activities on various DNA substrates. Of the 21 purified chimeric IN proteins constructed, 20 showed distinct site-specific cleavage activity with at least one substrate and six were able to catalyse an efficient integration reaction. Analysis of the chimeric IN proteins revealed that the central domain together with the C terminus determines the activity and substrate specificity of the enzyme. The N terminus appears to have no considerable influence. Furthermore, an efficient integration activity of CAEV wild-type IN was successfully demonstrated after detailed characterization of the reaction conditions that support optimal enzyme activities of CAEV IN. Also, under the same in vitro assay conditions, MVV and HIV-1 IN proteins exhibited endonuclease and integration activities, an indispensable prerequisite of domain-swapping experiments. Thus, the following report presents a detailed characterization of the activities of CAEV IN in vitro as well as the analysis of functional chimeric lentiviral IN proteins.

Identification of foot-and-mouth disease virus-specific linear B-cell epitopes to differentiate between infected and vaccinated cattle.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. For several years, vaccination of animals, which had proven to be successful for the eradication of the disease, has been forbidden in the United States and the European Community because of the difficulty of differentiating between vaccinated and infected animals. In this study, detailed investigations of the bovine humoral immune response against FMD virus (FMDV) were performed with the aim of identifying viral epitopes recognized specifically by sera derived from FMDV-infected animals. The use of overlapping 15-mer synthetic peptides, covering the whole open reading frame of FMDV strain O(1)K in a peptide enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, allowed the identification of 12 FMDV strain O(1)K-specific linear B-cell epitopes. Six of these linear B-cell epitopes, located in the nonstructural proteins, were used in further assays to compare the reactivities of sera from vaccinated and infected cattle. Antibodies recognizing these peptides could be detected only in sera derived from infected cattle. In further experiments, the reactivity of the six peptides with sera from animals infected with different strains of FMDV was tested, and strain-independent infection-specific epitopes were identified. Thus, these results clearly demonstrate the ability of a simple peptide-based assay to discriminate between infected and conventionally FMD-vaccinated animals.

Identification of a calicivirus isolate of unknown origin.

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells manifesting striking cytopathogenic changes in culture were investigated to determine the causative agent. Electron microscopic analyses revealed viral particles of about 40 nm in diameter, displaying typical calicivirus morphology. To date, this virus, designated isolate 2117, exclusively replicates in CHO cells, achieving only moderate titres. After cloning, the coding region of 7928 nucleotides, the 3' non-coding region and the poly(A) tail were sequenced. The genome consists of three open reading frames (ORFs), with the first and second ORF having the same reading frame. The overall genomic organization as well as the nucleotide sequence of isolate 2117 is most similar to that of a recently described canine calicivirus, but also shows significant similarity to the sequences of mink calicivirus and other caliciviruses within the genus Vesivirus: In Western blots, using antibodies against the viral protease, a stable, unprocessed 3CD protein of 68 kDa was identified in homogenates of 2117-infected CHO cells. Furthermore, antibodies raised against ORF 3 reacted with the respective protein in 2117-virions, demonstrating that this predicted 9 kDa protein is a minor structural component of the virion. In addition, an RT-PCR assay was established to detect 2117 viral RNA in biological products such as foetal bovine serum, which will aid the discovery of the origin and host of the virus.

Identification of T-cell epitopes in the structural and non-structural proteins of classical swine fever virus.

To identify new T-cell epitopes of classical swine fever virus (CSFV), 573 overlapping, synthetic pentadecapeptides spanning 82% of the CSFV (strain Glentorf) genome sequence were synthesized and screened. In proliferation assays, 26 peptides distributed throughout the CSFV viral protein sequences were able to induce specific T-cell responses in PBMCs from a CSFV-Glentorf-infected d/d haplotype pig. Of these 26 peptides, 18 were also recognized by PBMCs from a CSFV-Alfort/187-infected d/d haplotype pig. In further experiments, it could be shown that peptide 290 (KHKVRNEVMVHWFDD), which corresponds to amino acid residues 1446-1460 of the CSFV non-structural protein NS2-3 could induce interferon-gamma secretion after secondary in vitro restimulation. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) restriction for stimulation of T-cells by this pentadecapeptide was identified as being mainly MHC class II and partially MHC class I. In cytolytic assays, CSFV-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) were able to lyse peptide 290-loaded target cells. These findings indicate the existence of a CSFV-specific helper T-cell epitope and a CTL epitope in this peptide.

Reduced proteinase K resistance and infectivity of prions after pressure treatment at 60 degrees C.

High hydrostatic pressure is a mild technology compared with high temperatures and is commonly used for food pasteurization. Crude brain homogenates of terminally diseased hamsters infected with scrapie 263K strain were heated at 60 degrees C and/or pressurized up to 1000 MPa for 2 h. Prion proteins were analysed for their proteinase K sensitivity using a Western blot technique. PrP(Sc) pressurized with 500 MPa or above proved to be proteinase K sensitive. To test the remaining infectivity of the pressurized material, hamsters were infected intracerebrally. Results showed a greatly delayed onset of disease (from 80 up to 153 days) when samples had been pressurized at 500 MPa and above. An increase in the survival rate was also observed: 47 % survival over 180 days was seen following infection with homogenates pressurized at 700-1000 MPa.