Maternal Colonization Versus Nosocomial Transmission as the Source of Drug-Resistant Bloodstream Infection in an Indian Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Drug-resistant gram-negative (GN) pathogens are a common cause of neonatal sepsis in low- and middle-income countries. Identifying GN transmission patterns is vital to inform preventive efforts. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study, 12 October 2018 to 31 October 2019 to describe the association of maternal and environmental GN colonization with bloodstream infection (BSI) among neonates admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in Western India. We assessed rectal and vaginal colonization in pregnant women presenting for delivery and colonization in neonates and the environment using culture-based methods. We also collected data on BSI for all NICU patients, including neonates born to unenrolled mothers. Organism identification, antibiotic susceptibility testing, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) were performed to compare BSI and related colonization isolates. RESULTS: Among 952 enrolled women who delivered, 257 neonates required NICU admission, and 24 (9.3%) developed BSI. Among mothers of neonates with GN BSI (n = 21), 10 (47.7%) had rectal, 5 (23.8%) had vaginal, and 10 (47.7%) had no colonization with resistant GN organisms. No maternal isolates matched the species and resistance pattern of associated neonatal BSI isolates. Thirty GN BSI were observed among neonates born to unenrolled mothers. Among 37 of 51 BSI with available NGS data, 21 (57%) showed a single nucleotide polymorphism distance of ≤5 to another BSI isolate. CONCLUSIONS: Prospective assessment of maternal GN colonization did not demonstrate linkage to neonatal BSI. Organism-relatedness among neonates with BSI suggests nosocomial spread, highlighting the importance of NICU infection prevention and control practices to reduce GN BSI.

High Burden of Bloodstream Infections Associated With Antimicrobial Resistance and Mortality in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit in Pune, India.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing threat to newborns in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). METHODS: We performed a prospective cohort study in 3 tertiary neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) in Pune, India, to describe the epidemiology of neonatal bloodstream infections (BSIs). All neonates admitted to the NICU were enrolled. The primary outcome was BSI, defined as positive blood culture. Early-onset BSI was defined as BSI on day of life (DOL) 0-2 and late-onset BSI on DOL 3 or later. RESULTS: From 1 May 2017 until 30 April 2018, 4073 neonates were enrolled. Among at-risk neonates, 55 (1.6%) developed early-onset BSI and 176 (5.5%) developed late-onset BSI. The majority of BSIs were caused by gram-negative bacteria (GNB; 58%); among GNB, 61 (45%) were resistant to carbapenems. Klebsiella spp. (n = 53, 23%) were the most common cause of BSI. Compared with neonates without BSI, all-cause mortality was higher among neonates with early-onset BSI (31% vs 10%, P < .001) and late-onset BSI (24% vs 7%, P < .001). Non-low-birth-weight neonates with late-onset BSI had the greatest excess in mortality (22% vs 3%, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: In our cohort, neonatal BSIs were most commonly caused by GNB, with a high prevalence of AMR, and were associated with high mortality, even in term neonates. Effective interventions are urgently needed to reduce the burden of BSI and death due to AMR GNB in hospitalized neonates in LMIC.

Prevalence and perceptions of infant massage in India: study from Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh states.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge of the prevailing infant care practices and their effects is important to inform practice and public programs. Infant massage is a traditional practice in India but remains less studied. This study was conducted to study the prevalence and perceptions of infant massage practices in two states of India. METHODS: A total of 1497 caretakers of children under 18 months of age were interviewed in a cross-sectional study at immunisation units of medical schools in Maharashtra (MH) and Madhya Pradesh (MP) states and through home visits in villages in MH during March through August 2018. RESULTS: Infant massage was a prevalent practice (93.8% [95%CI: 92.4,94.9]) in both study states - 97.9%[95%CI:96.9,98.8] in MH and 85.3%[95%CI: 81.9,88.3] in MP - and the prevalence did not vary between male (94.5%) and female (93.5%) infants (p = 0.44). Massage was mostly initiated in the first week of life (82%); it is widely viewed as a traditional practice. It was common to massage the baby once daily (77%), before bathing (77%), and after feeding (57%). Massage was mostly conducted using oils (97%). In MH, preferred oils were a sesame oil-based proprietary traditional medicine oil (36%) and coconut oil (18%) while olive (29%) and mustard (20%) oils were most popular in MP. Commonly reported application techniques included gentle massage with minimal pressure, pressing (30%) and manually stretching certain joints (60%). Commonly reported perceived benefits of infant massage included increased bone strength, better sleep and growth, while no harm was perceived (95%). CONCLUSION: Infant oil massage is a highly prevalent traditional practice in MH and MP. Clear guidance on the use of massage, choice of oil, and techniques for application is required to optimize benefits and minimize risks of this popular traditional practice.

Postpartum quality of life in Indian women after vaginal birth and cesarean section: a pilot study using the EQ-5D-5L descriptive system.

BACKGROUND: There has been little evaluation of the postpartum quality of life (QOL) of women in India and its association with the mode of birth. This study piloted the use of the generic EQ-5D-5L questionnaire to assess postpartum QOL experienced by rural Indian women. METHODS: A convenience sample of rural women who gave birth in a health facility in Gujarat or Madhya Pradesh was recruited into this pilot study. QOL was measured during three interviews within 30 days of birth using the EQ-5D-5L questionnaire. Patient-level quality-adjusted life days (QALDs) were estimated. Multivariate regression was used to adjust for selected baseline characteristics. RESULTS: Forty-six women with cesarean section and 178 with vaginal birth from 17 public and private health facilities were studied. Postpartum QOL in both groups improved between interviews 1 and 3. Comparing between vaginal and cesarean births indicated that the vaginal birth group had a higher QOL (0-3 days postpartum: 0.28 vs. 0.57, 3-7 days postpartum: 0.59 vs. 0.81; P < 0.001) and was more likely to report no or slight problems in 4 of 5 health dimensions (mobility, self-care, usual activities, pain or discomfort; P ≤ 0.04) during interviews 1 and 2. Postpartum QOL converged, but still differed between groups by the time of interview 3 (21-30 days postpartum: 0.85 vs. 0.93; P < 0.001). While most women reported no problems by the end of the first postpartum month, the difference in the ability to perform usual activities persisted (P = 0.001). In result, fewer QALDs were attained by women in the cesarean section group between day 1 and day 21 postpartum (13.1 vs. 16.6 QALDs; P < 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that having had an episiotomy during vaginal birth was also associated with reduced QOL postpartum, but to a lesser extent than cesarean section. Similar results were obtained when adjusting for socioeconomic, pregnancy and birth characteristics, but postpartum QOL already ceased to be statistically different between groups before interview 3. CONCLUSIONS: Vaginal births, even with episiotomy, were associated with a higher postpartum QOL than cesarean births among the Indian women in our pilot study. Finding these expected results suggests that the EQ-5D-5L questionnaire is a suitable instrument to assess postpartum QOL in Indian women.

The availability of emergency obstetric care in the context of the JSY cash transfer programme in Madhya Pradesh, India.

BACKGROUND: Since 2005, India has implemented a national cash transfer programme, the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), which provides women a cash transfer upon giving birth in an existing public facility. This has resulted in a steep rise in facility births across the country. The early years of the programme saw efforts being made to strengthen the ability of facilities to provide obstetric care. Given that the JSY has been able to draw millions of women into facilities to give birth (there have been more than 50 million beneficiaries thus far), it is important to study the ability of these facilities to provide emergency obstetric care (EmOC), as the functionality of these facilities is critical to improved maternal and neonatal outcomes. We studied the availability and level of provision of EmOC signal functions in public facilities implementing the JSY programme in three districts of Madhya Pradesh (MP) state, central India. These are measured against the World Health Report (WHR) 2005benchmarks. As a comparison, we also study the functionality and contribution of private sector facilities to the provision of EmOC in these districts. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of all healthcare facilities offering intrapartum care was conducted between February 2012 and April 2013. The EmOC signal functions performed in each facility were recorded, as were human resource data and birth numbers for each facility. RESULTS: A total of 152 facilities were surveyed of which 118 were JSY programme facilities. Eighty-six percent of childbirths occurred at programme facilities, two thirds of which occurred at facilities that did not meet standards for the provision basic emergency obstetric care. Of the 29 facilities that could perform caesareans, none could perform all the basic EmOC functions. Programme facilities provided few EmOC signal functions apart from parenteral antibiotic or oxytocic administration. Complicated EmOC provision was found predominantly in non-programme (private) facilities; only one of six facilities able to provide such care was in the public sector and therefore in the JSY programme. Only 13 % of all qualified obstetricians practiced at programme facilities. CONCLUSIONS: Given the high proportion of births in public facilities in the state, the JSY programme has an opportunity to contribute to the reduction in maternal and perinatal mortality However, for the programme to have a greater impact on outcomes; EmOC provision must be significantly improved.. While private, non-programme facilities have better human resources and perform caesareans, most women in the state give birth under the JSY programme in the public sector. A demand-side programme such as the JSY will only be effective alongside an adequate supply side (i.e., a facility able to provide EmOC).

Availability of treatment for eclampsia in public health institutions in Maharashtra, India.

Severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are common causes of maternal deaths worldwide and more so in developing countries. Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) is now the most-recommended drug of choice to treat these conditions. Despite favourable policies for the use of MgSO4 treatment in India, eclampsia continues to take a high toll. This study examined the availability and use of MgSO4 treatment in the public health system and poor women's recent experiences with eclampsia treatment in Maharashtra state. A mix of qualitative and quantative methods was used. A facility-based survey of all secondary and tertiary healthcare facilities (n = 44) in 3 selected districts and interviews with public and contracted-in private sector obstetricians, health officials, and programme managers were conducted. A list of recently-delivering women from marginalized communities, with up to two livebirths, was drawn through a community-level survey in 272 villages covered by 60 subcentres selected at random. Mothers were selected for interviews, using maximum variation sampling, and interviews were conducted with 17% of the mothers who reported having experienced eclampsia; 61% of facilities had no stock of MgSO4, the stock-out position continuing from a period ranging from 3 months to 3 years while another 20% had some stock, although less than the expected minimum quantity. No treatment for eclampsia was provided in the recent 3 months at 73% facilities. Our survey of recently-delivering mothers recorded a history of eclampsia in 3.2% pregnancies/ deliveries. Interviews with 10 such mothers revealed that treatment for eclampsia has been sought from public as well as private hospitals and from traditional healers. However, facilities where women have received medical treatment are exclusively in the private sector. Almost all public and private care providers were aware of MgSO4 as the gold standard to treat eclampsia; however, it is unclear if they knew of its use to treat severe pre-eclampsia. The private care providers routinely used MgSO4 for eclampsia treatment while the public care providers seemed hesitant to use it fearing risks of complications. We stress the need for improved inventory control practices to ensure sustained availability of supplies and building confidence of care providers in using MgSO4 treatment for severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia in public facilities, in addition to teaching expectant mothers how to recognize symptoms of these conditions.

Contracting in specialists for emergency obstetric care- does it work in rural India?

BACKGROUND: Contracting in private sector is promoted in developing countries facing human resources shortages as a challenge to reduce maternal mortality. This study explored provision, practice, performance, barriers to execution and views about contracting in specialists for emergency obstetric care (EmOC) in rural India. METHODS: Facility survey was conducted in all secondary and tertiary public health facilities (44) in three heterogeneous districts in Maharashtra state of India. Interviews (42) were conducted with programme managers and district and block level officials and with public and private EmOC specialists. Locations of private obstetricians in the study districts were identified and mapped. RESULTS: Two schemes, namely Janani Suraksha Yojana and Indian Public Health standards (IPHS) provided for contracting in EmOC specialists. The IPHS provision was chosen for use mainly due to greater sum for contracting in (US $ 30/service episode vs.300 US$/month). The positions of EmOC specialists were vacant in 83% of all facilities that hence had a potential for contracting in EmOC specialists. Private specialists were contracted in at 20% such facilities. The contracting in of specialists did not greatly increase EmOC service outputs at facilities, except in facilities with determined leadership. Contracting in specialists was useful for non emergency conditions, but not for obstetric emergencies. The contracts were more of a relational nature with poor monitoring structures. Inadequate infrastructure, longer distance to private specialists, insufficient financial provision for contracting in, and poor management capacities were barriers to effective implementation of contracting in. Dependency on the private sector was a concern among public partners while the private partners viewed contracting in as an opportunity to gain experience and credibility. CONCLUSIONS: Density and geographic distribution of private specialists are important influencing factors in determining feasibility and use of contracting in for EmOC. Local circumstances dictate balance between introduction or expansion of contracts with private sector and strengthening public provisions and that neither of these disregard the need to strengthen public systems. Sustainability of contracting in arrangements, their effect on increasing coverage of EmOC services in rural areas and overlapping provisions for contracting in EmOC specialists are issues for future consideration.

Implementation of the Comprehensive Unit-Based Safety Program to Improve Infection Prevention and Control Practices in Four Neonatal Intensive Care Units in Pune, India.

Objective: To implement the Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program (CUSP) in four neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) in Pune, India, to improve infection prevention and control (IPC) practices. Design: In this quasi-experimental study, we implemented CUSP in four NICUs in Pune, India, to improve IPC practices in three focus areas: hand hygiene, aseptic technique for invasive procedures, and medication and intravenous fluid preparation and administration. Sites received training in CUSP methodology, formed multidisciplinary teams, and selected interventions for each focus area. Process measures included fidelity to CUSP, hand hygiene compliance, and central line insertion checklist completion. Outcome measures included the rate of healthcare-associated bloodstream infection (HA-BSI), all-cause mortality, patient safety culture, and workload. Results: A total of 144 healthcare workers and administrators completed CUSP training. All sites conducted at least 75% of monthly meetings. Hand hygiene compliance odds increased 6% per month [odds ratio (OR) 1.06 (95% CI 1.03-1.10)]. Providers completed insertion checklists for 68% of neonates with a central line; 83% of checklists were fully completed. All-cause mortality and HA-BSI rate did not change significantly after CUSP implementation. Patient safety culture domains with greatest improvement were management support for patient safety (+7.6%), teamwork within units (+5.3%), and organizational learning-continuous improvement (+4.7%). Overall workload increased from a mean score of 46.28 ± 16.97 at baseline to 65.07 ± 19.05 at follow-up (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: CUSP implementation increased hand hygiene compliance, successful implementation of a central line insertion checklist, and improvements in safety culture in four Indian NICUs. This multimodal strategy is a promising framework for low- and middle-income country healthcare facilities to reduce HAI risk in neonates.

Bypassing health facilities for childbirth in the context of the JSY cash transfer program to promote institutional birth: A cross-sectional study from Madhya Pradesh, India.

Bypassing health facilities for childbirth can be costly both for women and health systems. There have been some reports on this from Sub-Saharan African and from Nepal but none from India. India has implemented the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), a large national conditional cash transfer program which has successfully increased the number of institutional births in India. This paper aims to study the extent of bypassing the nearest health facility offering intrapartum care in three districts of Madhya Pradesh, India, and to identify individual and facility determinants of bypassing in the context of the JSY program. Our results provide information to support the optimal utilization of facilities at different levels of the healthcare system for childbirth. Data was collected from 96 facilities (74 public) and 720 rural mothers who delivered at these facilities were interviewed. Multilevel logistic regression was used to analyze the data. Facility obstetric care functionality was assessed by the number of emergency obstetric care (EmOC) signal functions performed in the last three months. Thirty eighth percent of the mothers bypassed the nearest public facility for their current delivery. Primiparity, higher education, arriving by hired transport and a longer distance from home to the nearest facility increased the odds of bypassing a public facility for childbirth. The variance partition coefficient showed that 37% of the variation in bypassing the nearest public facility can be attributed to difference between facilities. The number of basic emergency obstetric care signal functions (AOR = 0.59, 95% CI 0.37-0.93), and the availability of free transportation at the nearest facility (AOR = 0.11, 95% CI 0.03-0.31) were protective factors against bypassing. The variation between facilities (MOR = 3.85) was more important than an individual's characteristics to explain bypassing in MP. This multilevel study indicates that in this setting, a focus on increasing the level of emergency obstetric care functionality in public obstetric care facilities will allow more optimal utilization of facilities for childbirth under the JSY program thereby leading to better outcomes for mothers.

Assessment of the quality of clinical documentation in India's JSY cash transfer program for facility births in Madhya Pradesh.

OBJECTIVE: To gain insight into the quality of care in facilities implementing the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) cash transfer program in Madhya Pradesh, India, by reviewing the level of documentation in the clinical records of women who delivered. METHODS: The present retrospective, descriptive study reviewed case records of women who delivered at 73 primary, secondary, and tertiary level facilities in three districts of Madhya Pradesh between 2012 and 2013. Twenty elements of care were assessed encompassing clinical history and admission details, care during delivery and postnatal period, and discharge details. RESULTS: A total of 1239 records were reviewed. The extent of documentation varied among the elements assessed-e.g. 24 (1.9%) records documented advice at discharge, 171 (13.8%) documented postnatal blood pressure, 437 (35.3%) documented fetal heart rate, and 1220 (98.5%) documented admission date. The extent of documentation was better at higher level facilities. CONCLUSION: The quality of clinical documentation in the JSY program was found to be unacceptably poor in Madhya Pradesh. Improving staff skills and practices in clinical documentation and record keeping will be required to enable clinical processes to be assessed and quality of care to be improved.

Availability and distribution of safe abortion services in rural areas: a facility assessment study in Madhya Pradesh, India.

BACKGROUND: Unsafe abortion contributes to a significant portion of maternal mortality in India. Access to safe abortion care is known to reduce maternal mortality. Availability and distribution of abortion care facilities can influence women's access to these services, especially in rural areas. OBJECTIVES: To assess the availability and distribution of abortion care at facilities providing childbirth care in three districts of Madhya Pradesh (MP) province of India. DESIGN: Three socio demographically heterogeneous districts of MP were selected for this study. Facilities conducting at least 10 deliveries a month were surveyed to assess availability and provision of abortion services using UN signal functions for emergency obstetric care. Geographical Information System was used for visualisation of the distribution of facilities. RESULTS: The three districts had 99 facilities that conducted >10 deliveries a month: 74 in public and 25 in private sector. Overall, 48% of facilities reported an ability to provide safe surgical abortion service. Of public centres, 32% reported the ability compared to 100% among private centres while 18% of public centres and 77% of private centres had performed an abortion in the last 3 months. The availability of abortion services was higher at higher facility levels with better equipped and skilled personnel availability, in urban areas and in private sector facilities. CONCLUSIONS: Findings showed that availability of safe abortion care is limited especially in rural areas. More emphasis on providing safe abortion services, particularly at primary care level, is important to more significantly dent maternal mortality in India.

Inequalities in institutional delivery uptake and maternal mortality reduction in the context of cash incentive program, Janani Suraksha Yojana: results from nine states in India.

Proportion of women giving birth in health institutions has increased sharply in India since the introduction of cash incentive program, Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) in 2005. JSY was intended to benefit disadvantaged population who had poor access to institutional care for childbirth and who bore the brunt of maternal deaths. Increase in institutional deliveries following the implementation of JSY needs to be analysed from an equity perspective. We analysed data from nine Indian states to examine the change in socioeconomic inequality in institutional deliveries five years after the implementation of JSY using the concentration curve and concentration index (CI). The CI was then decomposed in order to understand pathways through which observed inequalities occurred. Disparities in access to emergency obstetric care (EmOC) and in maternal mortality reduction among different socioeconomic groups were also assessed. Slope and relative index of inequality were used to estimate absolute and relative inequalities in maternal mortality ratio (MMR). Results shows that although inequality in access to institutional delivery care persists, it has reduced since the introduction of JSY. Nearly 70% of the present inequality was explained by differences in male literacy, EmOC availability in public facilities and poverty. EmOC in public facilities was grossly unavailable. Compared to richest division in nine states, poorest division has 135 more maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in 2010. While MMR has decreased in all areas since JSY, it has declined four times faster in richest areas compared to the poorest, resulting in increased inequalities. These findings suggest that in order for the cash incentive to succeed in reducing the inequalities in maternal health outcomes, it needs to be supported by the provision of quality health care services including EmOC. Improved targeting of disadvantaged populations for the cash incentive program could be considered.

Quality of obstetric referral services in India's JSY cash transfer programme for institutional births: a study from Madhya Pradesh province.

BACKGROUND: India launched JSY cash transfer programme to increase access to emergency obstetric and neonatal care (EmONC) by incentivising in-facility births. This increased in-facility births from 30%in 2005 to 73% in 2012 however, decline in maternal mortality follows a secular trend. Dysfunctional referral services can contribute to poor programme impact on outcomes. We hence describe inter- facility referrals and study quality of referral services in JSY. METHODS AND RESULTS: Women accessing intra natal care (n = 1182) at facilities (reporting >10 deliveries/month, n = 96) were interviewed in a 5 day cross sectional survey in 3 districts of Madhya Pradesh province. A nested matched case control study (n = 68 pairs) was performed to study association between maternal referral and adverse birth outcomes. There were 111 (9.4%) in referrals and 69 (5.8%) out referrals. Secondary level facilities sent most referrals and 40% were for conditions expected to be treated at this level. There were 36 adverse birth outcomes (intra partum and in-facility deaths). After matching for type of complication and place of delivery, conditional logistic regression model showed maternal referral at term delivery was associated with higher odds of adverse birth outcomes (OR- 2.6, 95% CI: 1.0-6.6 p = 0.04). Maternal death record review (April 10-March 12) was conducted at the CEmOC facility in one district. Spatial analysis of transfer time from sending to the receiving CEmOC facility among in-facility maternal deaths was conducted in ArcGIS10 applying two hours (equated to 100 Km) as desired transfer time. There were 124 maternal deaths, 55 of which were among mothers referred in. Buffer analysis revealed 98% mothers were referred from <2 hours. Median time between arrival and death was 6.75 hours. CONCLUSIONS: High odds of adverse birth outcomes associated with maternal referral and high maternal deaths despite spatial access to referral care indicate poor quality of referral services.

India's Conditional Cash Transfer Programme (the JSY) to Promote Institutional Birth: Is There an Association between Institutional Birth Proportion and Maternal Mortality?

BACKGROUND: India accounts for 19% of global maternal deaths, three-quarters of which come from nine states. In 2005, India launched a conditional cash transfer (CCT) programme, Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), to reduce maternal mortality ratio (MMR) through promotion of institutional births. JSY is the largest CCT in the world. In the nine states with relatively lower socioeconomic levels, JSY provides a cash incentive to all women on birthing in health institution. The cash incentive is intended to reduce financial barriers to accessing institutional care for delivery. Increased institutional births are expected to reduce MMR. Thus, JSY is expected to (a) increase institutional births and (b) reduce MMR in states with high proportions of institutional births. We examine the association between (a) service uptake, i.e., institutional birth proportions and (b) health outcome, i.e., MMR. METHOD: Data from Sample Registration Survey of India were analysed to describe trends in proportion of institutional births before (2005) and during (2006-2010) the implementation of the JSY. Data from Annual Health Survey (2010-2011) for all 284 districts in above- mentioned nine states were analysed to assess relationship between MMR and institutional births. RESULTS: Proportion of institutional births increased from a pre-programme average of 20% to 49% in 5 years (p<0.05). In bivariate analysis, proportion of institutional births had a small negative correlation with district MMR (r = -0.11).The multivariate regression model did not establish significant association between institutional birth proportions and MMR [CI: -0.10, 0.68]. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis confirmed that JSY succeeded in raising institutional births significantly. However, we were unable to detect a significant association between institutional birth proportion and MMR. This indicates that high institutional birth proportions that JSY has achieved are of themselves inadequate to reduce MMR. Other factors including improved quality of care at institutions are required for intended effect.

Public private partnerships for emergency obstetric care: lessons from maharashtra.

BACKGROUND: The National Rural Health Mission of India advocates public private partnerships (PPPs) to meet its "service guarantee" of Emergency obstetric care (EmOC) provision. The Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) has a provision of Rs. 1500 for contracting in obstetric specialists. OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to understand the issues in the design and implementation of the PPPs for EmOC under the JSY in Maharashtra and how they affect the availability of EmOC services to women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study using the rapid assessment approach was conducted in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra spanning 1-year duration ending in June 2009. Primary data were obtained through interviews with women, providers, and administrators at various levels. Data were analyzed thematically. RESULTS: The PPP scheme for EmOC is restricted to deliveries by Caesarean section.The administrators prefer subsidization of costs for services in private facilities to contracting in. There are no PPPs executed in the study district. This study identifies barriers to women in accessing the benefit and the difficulties faced by administrators in implementing the scheme. CONCLUSION: The PPPs for EmOC under the JSY have minimally influenced the out-of-pocket payments for EmOC. Infrastructural inadequacies and passive support of the implementers are major barriers to the implementation of contracting-in model of PPPs. Capacities in the public health system are inadequate to design and manage PPPs.