Influence of strength and flexibility training, combined or isolated, on strength and flexibility gains.

The aim of this study was to analyze the strength and flexibility gains after 12 weeks of strength and flexibility training (FLEX), isolated or combined. Twenty-eight trained women (age = 46 ± 6.52 years; body mass = 56.8 ± 5.02 kg; height = 162 ± 5.58 cm; mean ± SD) were randomly divided into 4 groups: strength training (ST) (n = 7), FLEX (n = 7), combination of strength and flexibility (ST + FLEX) (n = 7), and combination of flexibility and strength (FLEX + ST) (n = 7). All groups were assessed before and after training for the sit and reach test, goniometry, and 10 repetition maximum in bench press (BP) and leg press (LP) exercises. The training protocol for all groups included training sessions on alternate days and was composed of 8 exercises performed at periodized intensities. The FLEX consisted of dynamic stretching performed for a total duration of 60 minutes. The results demonstrated significant strength gains in all groups in the LP exercise (FLEX: p = 0.0187; ST: p = 0.0001; FLEX + ST: p = 0.0034; ST + FLEX: p = 0.0021). All groups except the FLEX improved in BP strength (FLEX: p = 0.1757; ST: p = 0.0001; FLEX + ST: p = 0.0017; ST + FLEX: p = 0.0035). Statistical analyses did not show significant differences between groups; however, effect sizes demonstrated slightly different treatment effects for each group. Largest treatment effects were calculated for the ST group (LP: 2.72; BP: 1.25) and the lowest effects in the FLEX group (LP: 0.41; BP: -0.06). Both combination groups demonstrated lower effect sizes for both LP and BP as compared with the ST group. No significant differences in flexibility were seen in any group, in any of the comparisons (p > 0.05). In conclusion, these findings suggest that combining strength and FLEX is not detrimental to flexibility development; however, combined training may slightly reduce strength development, with little influence of order in which these exercises are performed.

Influence of number of sets on blood pressure and heart rate variability after a strength training session.

The purpose of this study was to compare the acute effects of 1, 3, and 5 sets of strength training (ST), on heart rate variability (HRV) and blood pressure. Eleven male volunteers (age: 26.1 ± 3.6 years; body mass: 74.1 ± 8.1 kg; height: 172 ± 4 cm) with at least 6 months previous experience in ST participated in the study. After determining the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) load for the bench press (BP), lat pull down (LPD), shoulder press (SP), biceps curl (BC), triceps extension (TE), leg press (LP), leg extension (LE), and leg curl (LC), the participants performed 3 different exercise sequences in a random order and 72 hours apart. During the first sequence, subjects performed a single set of 8-10 repetitions, at 70% 1RM, and with 2-minute rest interval between exercises. Exercises were performed in the following order: BP, LPD, SP, BC, TE, LP, LE, and LC. During the second sequence, subjects performed the same exercise sequence, with the same intensity, 2-minute rest interval between sets and exercises, but with 3 consecutive sets of each exercise. During the third sequence, the same protocol was followed but with 5 sets of each exercise. Before and after the training sessions, blood pressure and HRV were measured. The statistical analysis demonstrated a greater duration of postexercise hypotension after the 5-set program vs. the 1 set or 3 sets (p ≤ 0.05). However, the 5-set program promoted a substantial cardiac stress, as demonstrated by HRV (p ≤ 0.05). These results indicate that 5 sets of 8-10 repetitions at 70% 1RM load may provide the ideal stimulus for a postexercise hypotensive response. Therefore, ST composed of upper- and lower-body exercises and performed with high volumes are capable of producing significant and extended postexercise hypotensive response. In conclusion, strength and conditioning professionals can prescribe 5 sets per exercises if the goal is to reduce blood pressure after training. In addition, these findings may have importance, specifically in the early phase of high blood pressure development, but more research is needed in hypertensive populations to validate this hypothesis.

Comparison between nonlinear and linear periodized resistance training: hypertrophic and strength effects.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nonlinear periodized (NLP) and linear periodized (LP) resistance training (RT) on muscle thickness (MT) and strength, measured by an ultrasound technique and 1 repetition maximum (1RM), respectively. Thirty untrained men were randomly assigned to 3 groups: NLP (n = 11, age: 30.2 ± 1.1 years, height: 173.6 ± 7.2 cm, weight: 79.5 ± 13.1 kg), LP (n = 10, age: 29.8 ± 1.9 years, height: 172.0 ± 6.8 cm, weight: 79.9 ± 10.6 kg), and control group (CG; n = 9, age: 25.9 ± 3.6 years, height: 171.2 ± 6.3 cm, weight: 73.9 ± 9.9 kg). The right biceps and triceps MT and 1RM strength for the exercises bench press (BP), lat-pull down, triceps extension, and biceps curl (BC) were assessed before and after 12 weeks of training. The NLP program varied training biweekly during weeks 1-6 and on a daily basis during weeks 7-12. The LP program followed a pattern of intensity and volume changes every 4 weeks. The CG did not engage in any RT. Posttraining, both trained groups presented significant 1RM strength gains in all exercises (with the exception of the BP in LP). The 1RM of the NLP group was significantly higher than LP for BP and BC posttraining. There were no significant differences in biceps and triceps MT between baseline and posttraining for any group; however, posttraining, there were significant differences in biceps and triceps MT between NLP and the CG. The effect sizes were higher in NLP for the majority of observed variables. In conclusion, both LP and NLP are effective, but NLP may lead to greater gains in 1RM and MT over a 12-week training period.

Does aerobic and strength exercise sequence in the same session affect the oxygen uptake during and postexercise?

Concurrent training is a strategy employed in both general fitness and sports conditioning. The purpose of this study was to compare the responses of VO2 in different combinations of strength exercise with aerobic interval exercise. Eight men (23.6 ± 4.2 years, 178 ± 6.3 cm, 77 ± 7.9 kg, 7.67 ± 1.95% body fat) completed 3 combinations of strength training (ST) and aerobic training (AT) in a randomized order with a 7-day recovery period: AT before ST exercises, AT between 2 blocks of ST exercises, and AT after ST exercises. The ST comprised 4 exercises performed in 3 sets of 10 reps and 2 exercises, abdominal crunch and lumbar extension, performed in 3 sets of 30 and 20 reps, respectively. The AT consisted of a 20-minute interval cycling. There were no significant differences in the values of absolute or relative VO2, in the heart rate (HR) and in the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) when the 3 sessions (during + postexercise measurements) were compared (values are mean ± SD). Analyzing only ST in each session, differences were detected in the RER values (F = 4.714; p < 0.05; η2 = 0.308) between AT before ST and AT in the middle of ST (1.01 ± 0.97 vs. 1.11 ± 0.07, respectively). In all sequences, there was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the values of relative and absolute VO2 and HR, and a significant decrease in RER values (p < 0.05) from the first to the second part of the ST session. The values of absolute or relative VO2, HR, and RER did not vary significantly among the 3 sessions as compared with the AT after ST. These data support the hypothesis that ST and AT, when performed in sequence in the same session, do not seem to affect the overall oxygen consumption during the exercise session. Therefore, training sessions may incorporate both modalities without apparent impact on aerobic exercise.

Acute effects of whole-body vibration on neuromuscular responses in older individuals: implications for prescription of vibratory stimulation.

The aim of this study was to analyze surface electromyography activity (sEMG) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) responses in different muscles while standing on a vibrating platform producing oscillations of different frequencies and amplitudes. Twenty community-dwelling older adults (79.6 ± 3.2 years) took part in the research. Subjects were exposed to 12 different vibration treatments of 15 seconds separated by 1 minute of rest in random order to check the influence of frequency (25, 35, and 45 Hz) and amplitude (1 mm [low] and 3.1 mm [high]) vibration on sEMG signal and RPE. Additionally, the use of a soft pad was also examined for its influence on these measures. Three-factor analysis of variance for RPE and both lower and whole-body sEMGs revealed a significant amplitude main effect (p < 0.01), and soft mat effect (p < 0.01), and a significant frequency main effect (p < 0.01). The major findings were that sEMG and RPE increased with the acceleration of the vibration; moreover, the increments of sEMG were highly correlated with RPE. The results of this study suggest that using the RPE method after each exercise would allow exercise and health professionals to assess the intensity levels that correspond to the level of the vibratory program in older adults.

Concurrent training: a meta-analysis examining interference of aerobic and resistance exercises.

The primary objective of this investigation was to identify which components of endurance training (e.g., modality, duration, frequency) are detrimental to resistance training outcomes. A meta-analysis of 21 studies was performed with a total of 422 effect sizes (ESs). Criteria for the study included were (a) compare strength training alone to strength plus endurance training (concurrent) or to compare combinations of concurrent training; (b) the outcome measures include at least one measure of strength, power, or hypertrophy; and (c) the data necessary to calculate ESs must be included or available. The mean ES for hypertrophy for strength training was 1.23; for endurance training, it was 0.27; and for concurrent training, it was 0.85, with strength and concurrent training being significantly greater than endurance training only. The mean ES for strength development for strength training was 1.76; for endurance training, it was 0.78; and for concurrent training, it was 1.44. Strength and concurrent training was significantly greater than endurance training. The mean ES for power development for strength training only was 0.91; for endurance training, it was 0.11; and for concurrent training, it was 0.55. Significant differences were found between all the 3 groups. For moderator variables, resistance training concurrently with running, but not cycling, resulted in significant decrements in both hypertrophy and strength. Correlational analysis identified significant negative relationships between frequency (-0.26 to -0.35) and duration (-0.29 to -0.75) of endurance training for hypertrophy, strength, and power. Significant relationships (p < 0.05) between ES for decreased body fat and % maximal heart rate (r = -0.60) were also found. Our results indicate that interference effects of endurance training are a factor of the modality, frequency, and duration of the endurance training selected.

The use of whole-body vibration as a golf warm-up.

The purpose of this case series was to test the effectiveness of an active warm-up for recreational golfers using a whole-body vibration (WBV) platform. The variables that the warm-up tested for were increased flexibility, power, and golf performance. Ten adult men (age: 45 ± 15 yr) volunteered to perform their personal warm-up and record 7 of their golf swings. They then participated in an active warm-up involving flexibility exercises on the iTonic WBV platform and then recorded 7 more golf swings. The settings for the iTonic WBV platform were set to a frequency of 50 Hz and an amplitude of 2 mm, and each exercise was performed for 30 seconds. Eight different exercises were used for this warm-up. Significant changes (p < 0.05) were measured after the WBV warm-up in the following variables: sit and reach, ball speed, carry distance, and total distance. In a subgroup of subjects less than 45 years of age (n = 5), results mimicked those reported for the entire group in that both flexibility and power measures improved significantly. Subjects older than 45 years (n = 5) did not significantly (p < 0.05) improve in power measures but did improve sit and reach similarly to the younger group. These data suggest that a profound increase in the flexibility and power output of individual golfers occurs when a WBV warm-up bout is performed.

Effects of vibration training on muscle strength: a meta-analysis.

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to attempt to gain a clear picture of the magnitude of strength improvements expected after acute and chronic vibration training and to identify specific factors that influence the treatment effects. Studies employing a strength training intervention and containing data necessary to calculate effect size (ES) were included in the analysis. A total of 31 studies met the inclusion criterion. Analysis of ES demonstrated that the type of vibration platform employed is a moderator of the treatment effect of vibration on strength development. Differences were noted in both acute and chronic changes in muscle strength when vertical vibration platforms are compared with oscillating platforms. Vertical platforms elicit a significantly larger treatment effect for chronic adaptations (ES = 1.24) compared with oscillating platforms (ES = -0.13). However, oscillating platforms elicit a greater treatment effect for acute effects (ES = 0.24) compared with vertical platforms (ES = -0.07). The data also show that gender, training status, and exercise protocol are moderators of the response to vibration exercise for strength development (vertical platforms). Based on the overall analysis, it is apparent that vibration exercise can be effective at eliciting chronic muscle strength adaptations. The vibration exercise can be used by exercise professionals to enhance muscular strength.

Effects of vibration training on muscle power: a meta-analysis.

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to attempt to gain a clear picture of the magnitude of adaptations in muscular power expected after acute and chronic training, as well as identify specific factors that influence the treatment effects. Studies using a power training intervention and containing data necessary to calculate effect size (ES) were included in the analysis a total of 30 studies. Effect size demonstrated that the type of vibration platform used is a moderator of the treatment effect of vibration on power development is the type of vibration platform employed. Differences were noted in both acute and chronic changes in power when vertical vibration platforms were compared with oscillating platforms. Vertical platforms elicit a significantly larger treatment effect for chronic adaptations (ES = 0.99) as compared with oscillating platforms (ES = 0.36). The data also show that age is a moderator of the response to vibration exercise for power. On the basis of the overall analysis, it is apparent that vibration exercise can be effective at eliciting chronic power adaptations. Exercise professionals can include vibration exercise as a means of fostering power improvements.

Effects of different magnitudes of whole-body vibration on arm muscular performance.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of different vibration magnitudes via feet on the number of repetitions performed, mean velocity, and perceived exertion during a set of elbow-extension exercise to failure (70% 1 repetition maximum [1RM] load). Twenty recreationally active students (14 men and 6 women) performed, in 3 different days, 1 elbow-extension set applying randomly 1 of the 3 experimental conditions: high magnitude (HM; 50 Hz and 2.51 mmp-p; 98.55 mxs-2), low magnitude (LM; 30 Hz and 1.15 mmp-p; 20.44 m.s-2) or control (Control, without vibration stimulus). Results indicate that the vibration via feet provides superimposed stimuli for elbow-extensor performance, enhancing the total number of repetitions performed in the HM and LM conditions, which was significantly higher (p

Influence of exercise order on maximum strength and muscle volume in nonlinear periodized resistance training.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of exercise order on strength and muscle volume (MV) after 12 weeks of nonlinear periodized resistance training. The participants were randomly assigned into 3 groups. One group began performing large muscle group exercises and progressed to small muscle group exercises (LG-SM), whereas another group started with small muscle group exercises and advanced to large muscle group exercises (SM-LG). The exercise order for LG-SM was bench press (BP), machine lat pull-down (LPD), triceps extension (TE), and biceps curl (BC). The order for the SM-LG was BC, TE, LPD, and BP. The third group did not exercise and served as a control group (CG). Training frequency was 2 sessions per week with at least 72 hours of rest between sessions. Muscle volume was assessed at baseline and after 6 weeks and 12 weeks of training by ultrasound techniques. One repetition maximum strength for all exercises was assessed at baseline and after 12 weeks of training. Effect size data demonstrated that differences in strength and MV were exhibited based on exercise order. Both training groups demonstrated greater strength improvements than the CG, but only BP strength increased to a greater magnitude in the LG-SM group as compared with the SM-LG. In all other strength measures (LPD, TE, and BC), the SM-LG group showed significantly greater strength increases. Triceps MV increased in the SM-LG group; however, biceps MV did not differ significantly between the training groups. In conclusion, if an exercise is important for the training goals of a program, then it should be placed at the beginning of the training session, regardless of whether or not it is a large muscle group exercise or a small muscle group exercise.

Influence of "in series" elastic resistance on muscular performance during a biceps-curl set on the cable machine.

This study aimed to investigate the role of elastic resistance (ER) applied "in series" to a pulley-cable (PC) machine on the number of repetitions performed, kinematics parameters, and perceived exertion during a biceps-curl set to failure with a submaximal load (70% of the 1 repetition maximum). Twenty-one undergraduate students (17 men and 4 women) performed, on 2 different days, 1 biceps-curl set on the PC machine. Subjects were randomly assigned to complete 2 experimental conditions in a cross-over fashion: conventional PC mode or ER + PC mode. Results indicate ER applied "in series" to a PC machine significantly reduces (p < 0.05) the maximal number of repetitions and results in a smooth and consistent decline in mean acceleration throughout the set, in comparison to the conventional PC mode. Although no significant differences were found concerning intrarepetition kinematics, the ER trended to reduce (18.6%) the peak acceleration of the load. With a more uniformly distributed external resistance, a greater average muscle tension could have been achieved throughout the range of movement, leading to greater fatigue that could explain the lower number of maximal repetitions achieved. The application of force in a smooth, consistent fashion during each repetition of an exercise, while avoiding active deceleration, is expected to enhance the benefits of the resistance exercise, especially for those seeking greater increases in muscular hypertrophy.

Influence of moderately intense strength training on flexibility in sedentary young women.

The present study is the first to examine whether moderately intense resistance training improves flexibility in an exclusively young, sedentary women population. Twenty-four, young, sedentary women were divided into 3 groups as follows: agonist/antagonist (AA) training group, alternated strength training (AST) group, or a control group (CG). Training occurred every other day for 8 weeks for a total of 24 sessions. Training groups performed 3 sets of 10 to 12 repetitions per set except for abdominal training where 3 sets of 15 to 20 reps were performed. Strength (1 repetition maximum bench press) and flexibility were assessed before and after the training period. Flexibility was assessed on 6 articular movements: shoulder flexion and extension, horizontal shoulder adduction and abduction, and trunk flexion and extension. Both groups increased strength and flexibility significantly from baseline and significantly when compared with the CG (p ≤ 0.05). The AST group increased strength and flexibility significantly more than the AA group (p ≤ 0.05) in all but one measurement. This study shows that resistance training can improve flexibility in young sedentary women in 8 weeks.

The effect of acute applications of whole-body vibration on the iTonic platform on subsequent lower-body power output during the back squat.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) training has been suggested to enhance strength and power development; however, research examining such claims has been scarce and lacks consistent findings. This study examined a unique application of WBV as a preexercise for the back squat in an attempt to increase rate of force production during the squat. Sixteen men, college athletes, were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Both groups performed two sets of back squats (three repetitions at 75% of one-repetition maximum completed as quickly as possible) with different activities between sets. One group (REST) sat passively in a chair for 3 minutes, and the other group (WBV) rested passively for 2 minutes before performing 30 seconds of dynamic squats on the iTonic vibration platform (frequency: 35 Hz; amplitude: 4 mm). Power (W) was measured and calculated for each set of squats through the use of the TENDO FiTROdyne Powerlizer (Fitro-Dyne; Fitronic, Bratislava, Slovakia). Peak power during the concentric portion of each repetition was recorded, and an average was calculated for each set. Statistical analysis identified a significantly (p < 0.05) greater improvement in power in the WBV (5.20%) as compared with the REST (0.55%) group. These data suggest an immediate increase in the rate of force production after the use of WBV. Although further research is warranted to examine the appropriate dose for such an application of WBV and the physiological rationale for such an improvement, strength and conditioning professionals should consider the implementation of WBV as a preexercise before resistance training exercises for power development.

Effect of iTonic whole-body vibration on delayed-onset muscle soreness among untrained individuals.

Attempts to reduce or eliminate delayed-onset of muscle soreness are important as this condition is painful and debilitating. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of whole-body vibration (WBV) massage and stretching exercises at reducing perceived pain among untrained men. Sixteen adult men (age, 36.6 +/- 2.1 yr) volunteered to perform a strenuous exercise session consisting of resistance training and repeated sprints. Subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 recovery groups: a group performing WBV stretching sessions or a stretching group performing static stretching without vibration. Both groups performed similar stretches, twice per day for 3 days after the workout. The vibration group performed their stretches on the iTonic platform (frequency, 35 Hz; amplitude, 2 mm). Perceived pain was measured at 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours postworkout. Statistical analyses identified a significantly lower level of reported perceived pain at all postworkout measurement times among the WBV group (p < 0.05). No difference existed at the preworkout measurement time. The degree of attenuation of pain ranged from 22-61%. These data suggest that incorporating WBV as a recovery/regeneration tool may be effective for reducing the pain of muscle soreness and tightness after strenuous training.

Alterations in speed of squat movement and the use of accommodated resistance among college athletes training for power.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of heavy/slow movements and variable resistance training on peak power and strength development. Forty-eight National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletes (age: 21.4 +/- 2.1 years, all men) were recruited for this 12-week training intervention study. Maximum strength and jumping power were assessed before and after the training program. Athletes were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 training groups: heavy resistance/slow movement (Slow), lighter resistance and fast movement (Fast), or fast movements with accommodated resistance (FACC). All training groups performed similar training programs comprising free weight resistance training with lower-body compound exercises. The only difference among the training interventions was the speed at which subjects performed the squat exercise and the use of bands (Slow group: 0.2-0.4 meters/second; Fast group: 0.6-0.8 meters/second; FACC group trained 0.6-0.8 meters/second with the addition of accommodated resistance in the form of large elastic bands). Post-test data revealed a significant difference between power improvements between the Slow and FACC groups (p = 0.02). Percent increases and effect sizes (ES) demonstrated a much greater treatment effect in the FACC group (17.8%, ES = 1.06) with the Fast group (11.0%, ES = 0.80) adapting more than the Slow group (4.8%, ES = 0.28). The FACC and Slow groups improved strength comparatively (FACC: 9.44%, ES = 1.10; Slow: 9.59%, ES = 1.08). The Fast group improved strength considerably less, 3.20% with an effect size of only 0.38. Variable resistance training with elastic bands appears to provide greater performance benefits with regard to peak force and peak power than heavy, slow resistance exercise. Sports conditioning professionals can utilize bands, and high-speed contractions, to increase power development.

Neuromuscular activity during whole-body vibration of different amplitudes and footwear conditions: implications for prescription of vibratory stimulation.

This study investigated the magnitude of whole-body vibration (WBV) at 30 Hz induced in surface electromyography root-mean-square (EMGrms) signals of different amplitudes and footwear conditions of unloaded isometric half squat (100). For this purpose, 10 healthy and active males (age 28.7 +/- 4.6 yr; height 180 +/- 5.9 cm; and weight 90 +/- 13.4 kg) volunteered to participate in this study. Subjects were exposed to the WBV treatment using a vibration platform (FreeMotion Fitness iTonic). The subjects were exposed randomly to 4 different treatments of WBV: with shoes 2 mm amplitude, without shoes 2 mm, with shoes 4 mm, and without shoes 4 mm. The EMGrms signals were recorded from the vastus lateralis and the gastrocnemius medialis muscle during the different conditions. The WBV treatments resulted in a significantly higher (p

Metabolic conditioning among soccer players.

To reduce the risk of overuse injuries, yet obtain optimal fitness development among soccer players, research comparing different training strategies is required. This study compared conventional group conditioning (GRP) to individualized training (IT) during the preseason among female college soccer players. Both groups participated in soccer practices; however, players were randomly assigned to supplemental conditioning differentiated by the use of player-specific heart rate training in the IT group. Changes in maximal oxygen consumption, anaerobic threshold, and rate of recovery were analyzed before and after 12 weeks of conditioning. Data analysis identified significantly (p < 0.05) greater improvements in the IT group in all 3 variables, despite considerably less training volume. Based on these data, it is apparent that catering training to the fitness level of each individual player can have a positive impact on training adaptations.

The influence of strength and power on muscle endurance test performance.

The aim of this study was to determine the importance of muscular strength and power on a muscular endurance performance test. Fourteen firefighter recruits performed a progressive resistance test (PRT) followed by a specific maximum repetition test (MRT40) on the bench press exercise with measurements of power, strength, and muscular endurance. Comparisons were then made to examine relationships between the 3 muscular fitness variables. The results, expressed in absolute form and related to body weight, indicate that the performance in the MRT40 is significantly related (p

The acute influence of two intensities of aerobic exercise on strength training performance in elderly women.

The aim of this study was to compare the acute influence of 2 intensities of aerobic exercise on a strength training session in physically active elderly women. Twenty-five women (74.3 +/- 2.8 years) with previous experience in both resistance and aerobic exercise volunteered to perform aerobic activity (60 and 80% maximum heart rate) followed by a training session on leg press, leg extension, and leg curl exercises. After aerobic intensity training, the number of repetitions in each set was analyzed to determine whether the aerobic exercise affected the amount of volume completed in a resistance workout. The results showed a significant decrease in the number of repetitions per exercise after aerobic training intensities of 80 and 60%. Ratings of perceived exertion demonstrated that fatigue after the 80% workout was greater than after the 60% workout. It was concluded that, at the training intensities tested, 20 minutes of aerobic training may be enough to produce a negative impact on a strength training performance session of physically active elderly women.