Synaptic density in aging mice measured by [18F]SynVesT-1 PET.

Synaptic alterations in certain brain structures are related to cognitive decline in neurodegeneration and in aging. Synaptic loss in many neurodegenerative diseases can be visualized by positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A (SV2A). However, the use of SV2A PET for studying synaptic changes during aging is not particularly explored. Thus, in the present study, PET ligand [18F]SynVesT-1, which binds to SV2A, was used to investigate synaptic density at different ages in healthy mice. Wild type C57BL/6 mice divided into three age groups (4-5 months (n = 7), 12-14 months (n = 11), 17-19 months (n = 7)) were PET scanned with [18F]SynVesT-1. Brain retention of [18F]SynVesT-1 expressed as the volume of distribution (VIDIF) was calculated using an image-derived input function. Estimates of VIDIF were derived using either a one-tissue compartment model (1TCM), a two-tissue compartment model (2TCM), or the Logan plot with blood input to find the best-fit model for [18F]SynVesT-1. After the PET scans, tissue sections were immunostained for the detection of SV2A and neuronal markers. We found that [18F]SynVesT-1 data acquired 60 min post intravenously injection and analyzed with 1TCM described the brain pharmacokinetics of the radioligand in mice well. [18F]SynVesT-1 brain retention was lower in the oldest group of mice, indicating a decrease in synaptic density in this age group. However, no gradual age-dependent decrease in synaptic density at a region-specific level was observed. Immunostaining indicated that SV2A expression and neuron numbers were similar across all three age groups. In general, these data obtained in healthy aging mice are consistent with previous findings in humans where synaptic density appeared stable during aging up to a certain age, after which a small decrease is observed.

Functionalization of Radiolabeled Antibodies to Enhance Peripheral Clearance for High Contrast Brain Imaging.

Small molecule imaging agents such as [11C]PiB, which bind to the core of insoluble amyloid-ß (Aß) fibrils, are useful tools in Alzheimer's disease (AD) research, diagnostics, and drug development. However, the [11C]PiB PET signal saturates early in the disease progression and does not detect soluble or diffuse Aß pathology which are believed to play important roles in the disease progression. Antibodies, modified into a bispecific format to enter the brain via receptor-mediated transcytosis, could be a suitable alternative because of their diversity and high specificity for their target. However, the circulation time of these antibodies is long, resulting in an extended exposure to radiation and low imaging contrast. Here, we explore two alternative strategies to enhance imaging contrast by increasing clearance of the antibody ligand from blood. The bispecific Aß targeting antibody RmAb158-scFv8D3 and the monospecific RmAb158 were radiolabeled and functionalized with either α-d-mannopyranosylphenyl isothiocyanate (mannose) or with trans-cyclooctene (TCO). While mannose can directly mediate antibody clearance via the liver, TCO-modified antibody clearance was induced by injection of a tetrazine-functionalized, liver-targeting clearing agent (CA). In vivo experiments in wild type and AD transgenic mice demonstrated the ability of both strategies to drastically shorten the circulation time of RmAb158, while they had limited effect on the bispecific variant RmAb158-8D3. Furthermore, single photon emission computed tomography imaging with TCO-[125I]I-RmAb158 in AD mice showed higher contrast 1 day after injection of the tetrazine-functionalized CA. In conclusion, strategies to enhance the clearance of antibody-based imaging ligands could allow imaging at earlier time points and thereby open the possibility to combine antibodies with short-lived radionuclides such as fluorine-18.

In vivo imaging of synaptic density with [11C]UCB-J PET in two mouse models of neurodegenerative disease.

The positron emission tomography (PET) radioligand [11C]UCB-J binds to synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A) and is used to investigate synaptic density in the living brain. Clinical studies have indicated reduced [11C]UCB-J binding in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) brains compared to healthy controls. Still, it is unknown whether [11C]UCB-J PET can visualise synaptic loss in mouse models of these disorders. Such models are essential for understanding disease pathology and for evaluating the effects of novel disease-modifying drug candidates. In the present study, synaptic density in transgenic models of AD (ArcSwe) and PD (L61) was studied using [11C]UCB-J PET. Data were acquired during 60 min after injection, and time-activity curves (TACs) in different brain regions and the left ventricle of the heart were generated based on the dynamic PET images. The [11C]UCB-J brain concentrations were expressed as standardised uptake value (SUV) over time. The area under the SUV curve (AUC), the ratio of AUC in the brain to that in the heart (AUCbrain/blood), and the volume of distribution (VT) obtained by kinetic modelling using the heart TAC as input were compared between transgenic and age-matched wild type (WT) mice. The L61 mice displayed 11-13% lower AUCbrain/blood ratio and brain VT generated by kinetic modeling compared to the control WT mice. In general, also transgenic ArcSwe mice tended to show lower [11C]UCB-J brain exposure than age-matched WT controls, but variation within the different animal groups was high. Older WT mice (18-20 months) showed lower [11C]UCB-J brain exposure than younger WT mice (8-9 months). Together, these data imply that [11C]UCB-J PET reflects synaptic density in mouse models of neurodegeneration and that inter-subject variation is large. In addition, the study suggested that model-independent AUCbrain/blood ratio can be used to evaluate [11C]UCB-J binding as an alternative to full pharmacokinetic modelling.

Brain TSPO-PET predicts later disease progression independent of relapses in multiple sclerosis.

Overactivation of microglia is associated with most neurodegenerative diseases. In this study we examined whether PET-measurable innate immune cell activation predicts multiple sclerosis disease progression. Activation of microglia/macrophages was measured using the 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO)-binding radioligand 11C-PK11195 and PET imaging in 69 patients with multiple sclerosis and 18 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Radioligand binding was evaluated as the distribution volume ratio from dynamic PET images. Conventional MRI and disability measurements using the Expanded Disability Status Scale were performed for patients at baseline and 4.1 ± 1.9 (mean ± standard deviation) years later. Fifty-one (74%) of the patients were free of relapses during the follow-up period. Patients had increased activation of innate immune cells in the normal-appearing white matter and in the thalamus compared to the healthy control group (P = 0.033 and P = 0.003, respectively, Wilcoxon). Forward-type stepwise logistic regression was used to assess the best variables predicting disease progression. Baseline innate immune cell activation in the normal-appearing white matter was a significant predictor of later progression when the entire multiple sclerosis cohort was assessed [odds ratio (OR) = 4.26; P = 0.048]. In the patient subgroup free of relapses there was an association between macrophage/microglia activation in the perilesional normal-appearing white matter and disease progression (OR = 4.57; P = 0.013). None of the conventional MRI parameters measured at baseline associated with later progression. Our results strongly suggest that innate immune cell activation contributes to the diffuse neural damage leading to multiple sclerosis disease progression independent of relapses.

A comparative study on Suzuki-type 11 C-methylation of aromatic organoboranes performed in two reaction media.

The Suzuki-type cross coupling reaction is a palladium-mediated multistep reaction that has been used to synthesize several 11 C-labeled tracers for PET. However, the impact of the selected organoborane reagent and reaction medium on the radiochemical yield (RCY) has not been thoroughly investigated. To bridge this gap, we studied the synthesis of 1-[11 C]methylnaphthalene using four different organoborane precursors in reactions performed in DMF/water and THF/water. In the synthesis of 1-[11 C]methylnaphthalene, the best radiochemical yields (RCYs), approximately 50%, were obtained with boronic acid and pinacol ester precursors, whereas less than 4% RCY was obtained when performing the reaction with the N-methylimidodiacetic acid boronic ester (MIDA ester) precursor. 1-[11 C]methylnaphthalene was obtained in higher yields in almost all syntheses performed in THF/water as compared to DMF/water. This observation was in line with previously reported results for [11 C]UCB-J, a tracer for the synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A (SV2A) receptor, that also was obtained in higher RCY when synthesized in THF/water. The same trend was observed with [11 C]cetrozole, where the RCY was more than doubled in THF/water compared to the previously published synthesis performed in DMF. These results suggest that THF/water could be the preferred reaction medium when producing PET tracers via the Suzuki-type coupling reaction.

Cardiac remodeling in a new pig model of chronic heart failure: Assessment of left ventricular functional, metabolic, and structural changes using PET, CT, and echocardiography.

AIMS: Large animal models are needed to study disease mechanisms in heart failure (HF). In the present study we characterized the functional, metabolic, and structural changes of myocardium in a novel pig model of chronic myocardial infarction (MI) by using multimodality imaging and histology. METHODS AND RESULTS: Male farm pigs underwent a two-step occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery with concurrent distal ligation and implantation of a proximal ameroid constrictor (HF group), or sham operation (control group). Three months after the operation, cardiac output and wall stress were measured by echocardiography. Left ventricle (LV) volumes and mass were measured by computed tomography (CT). Myocardial perfusion was evaluated by [(15)O]water and oxygen consumption using [(11)C]acetate positron emission tomography, and the efficiency of myocardial work was calculated. Histological examinations were conducted to detect MI, hypertrophy, and fibrosis. Animals in the HF group had a large anterior MI scar. CT showed larger LV diastolic volume and lower ejection fraction in HF pigs than in controls. Perfusion and oxygen consumption in the remote non-infarcted myocardium were preserved in HF pigs as compared to controls. Global LV work and efficiency were significantly lower in HF than control pigs and was associated with increased wall stress. Histology showed myocyte hypertrophy but not increased interstitial fibrosis in the remote segments in HF pigs. CONCLUSIONS: The chronic post-infarction model of HF is suitable for studies aimed to evaluate LV remodeling and changes in oxidative metabolism and can be useful for testing new therapies for HF.

Synthesis and evaluation of a (18)F-curcumin derivate for ß-amyloid plaque imaging.

INTRODUCTION: Curcumin is a neuroprotective compound that inhibits the formation of amyloid oligomers and fibrils and binds to ß-amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We aimed to synthesize an (18)F-labeled curcumin derivate ([(18)F]4) and to characterize its positron emission tomography (PET) tracer-binding properties to ß-amyloid plaques in a transgenic APP23 mouse model of AD. METHODS: We utilized facile one-pot synthesis of [(18)F]4 using nucleophilic (18)F-fluorination and click chemistry. Binding of [(18)F]4 to ß-amyloid plaques in the transgenic APP23 mouse brain cryosections was studied in vitro using heterologous competitive binding against PIB. [(18)F]4 uptake was studied ex vivo in rodents and in vivo using PET/computed tomography of transgenic APP23 and wild-type control mice. RESULTS: The radiochemical yield of [(18)F]4 was 21 ± 11%, the specific activity exceeded 1TBq/µmol, and the radiochemical purity exceeded 99.3% at the end of synthesis. In vitro studies of [(18)F]4 with the transgenic APP23 mouse revealed high ß-amyloid plaque binding. In vivo and ex vivo studies demonstrated that [(18)F]4 has fast clearance from the blood, moderate metabolism but low blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration. CONCLUSIONS: [(18)F]4 was synthesized in high yield and excellent quality. In vitro studies, metabolite profile, and fast clearance from the blood indicated a promising tracer for Aß imaging. However, [(18)F]4 has low in vivo BBB penetration and thus further studies are needed to reveal the reason for this and to possibly overcome this issue.

Synthesis and evaluation of fluorine-18 labelled tetrazines as pre-targeting imaging agents for PET.

BACKGROUND: The brain is a challenging target for antibody-based positron emission tomography (immunoPET) imaging due to the restricted access of antibody-based ligands through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). To overcome this physiological obstacle, we have previously developed bispecific antibody ligands that pass through the BBB via receptor-mediated transcytosis. While these radiolabelled ligands have high affinity and specificity, their long residence time in the blood and brain, typical for large molecules, poses another challenge for PET imaging. A viable solution could be a two-step pre-targeting approach which involves the administration of a tagged antibody that accumulates at the target site in the brain and then clears from the blood, followed by administration of a small radiolabelled molecule with fast kinetics. This radiolabelled molecule can couple to the tagged antibody and thereby make the antibody localisation visible by PET imaging. The in vivo linkage can be achieved by using the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reaction (IEDDA), with trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and tetrazine groups participating as reactants. In this study, two novel 18F-labelled tetrazines were synthesized and evaluated for their potential use as pre-targeting imaging agents, i.e., for their ability to rapidly enter the brain and, if unbound, to be efficiently cleared with minimal background retention. RESULTS: The two compounds, a methyl tetrazine [18F]MeTz and an H-tetrazine [18F]HTz were radiolabelled using a two-step procedure via [18F]F-Py-TFP synthesized on solid support followed by amidation with amine-bearing tetrazines, resulting in radiochemical yields of 24% and 22%, respectively, and a radiochemical purity of > 96%. In vivo PET imaging was performed to assess their suitability for in vivo pre-targeting. Time-activity curves from PET-scans showed [18F]MeTz to be the more pharmacokinetically suitable agent, given its fast and homogenous distribution in the brain and rapid clearance. However, in terms of rection kinetics, H-tetrazines are advantageous, exhibiting faster reaction rates in IEDDA reactions with dienophiles like trans-cyclooctenes, making [18F]HTz potentially more beneficial for pre-targeting applications. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates a significant potential of [18F]MeTz and [18F]HTz as agents for pre-targeted PET brain imaging due to their efficient brain uptake, swift clearance and appropriate chemical stability.

Altered amyloid-ß structure markedly reduces gliosis in the brain of mice harboring the Uppsala APP deletion.

Deposition of amyloid beta (Aß) into plaques is a major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Different amyloid precursor protein (APP) mutations cause early-onset AD by altering the production or aggregation properties of Aß. We recently identified the Uppsala APP mutation (APPUpp), which causes Aß pathology by a triple mechanism: increased ß-secretase and altered α-secretase APP cleavage, leading to increased formation of a unique Aß conformer that rapidly aggregates and deposits in the brain. The aim of this study was to further explore the effects of APPUpp in a transgenic mouse model (tg-UppSwe), expressing human APP with the APPUpp mutation together with the APPSwe mutation. Aß pathology was studied in tg-UppSwe brains at different ages, using ELISA and immunohistochemistry. In vivo PET imaging with three different PET radioligands was conducted in aged tg-UppSwe mice and two other mouse models; tg-ArcSwe and tg-Swe. Finally, glial responses to Aß pathology were studied in cell culture models and mouse brain tissue, using ELISA and immunohistochemistry. Tg-UppSwe mice displayed increased ß-secretase cleavage and suppressed α-secretase cleavage, resulting in AßUpp42 dominated diffuse plaque pathology appearing from the age of 5-6 months. The γ-secretase cleavage was not affected. Contrary to tg-ArcSwe and tg-Swe mice, tg-UppSwe mice were [11C]PiB-PET negative. Antibody-based PET with the 3D6 ligand visualized Aß pathology in all models, whereas the Aß protofibril selective mAb158 ligand did not give any signals in tg-UppSwe mice. Moreover, unlike the other two models, tg-UppSwe mice displayed a very faint glial response to the Aß pathology. The tg-UppSwe mouse model thus recapitulates several pathological features of the Uppsala APP mutation carriers. The presumed unique structural features of AßUpp42 aggregates were found to affect their interaction with anti-Aß antibodies and profoundly modify the Aß-mediated glial response, which may be important aspects to consider for further development of AD therapies.

19F/18F exchange synthesis for a novel [18F]S1P3-radiopharmaceutical.

(19)F/(18)F isotope exchange is a useful method to label drug molecules containing (19)F-fluorine with (18)F without modifying the drug molecule itself. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is an important cellular mediator that functions by signaling through cell surface receptors. S1P is involved in several cell responses and may be related to many central nervous system disorders, including neural malfunction in Alzheimer's disease. In this study, [(18)F]1-benzyl-N-(3,4-difluorobenzyl)-2-isopropyl-6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-1H-indole-3-carboxamide, a novel (18)F-labeled positron emission tomography tracer for the S1P3 receptor, was successfully synthesized using the (19)F/(18)F isotope exchange reaction. Parameters of the reaction kinetics were studied, and correlations between the initial (18)F-activity, the amount of precursor, radiochemical yield and specific activity (SA) were determined. Contrary to expectations, high initial (18)F-activity decreased the radiochemical yield, and only a minor increase of SA occurred. This is most probably due to the complexity of the molecule and the subsequent susceptibility to radiolytic bond disruption. On the basis of the present results, a convenient condition for the (19)F/(18)F exchange reaction is the use of 2 µmol precursor with 20 GBq of (18)F-activity. This afforded a radiochemical yield of ~10% with an SA of 0.3 GBq/µmol. Results from this study are of interest for new tracer development where high initial (18)F-activity and (19)F/(18)F isotope exchange is used.

Imaging of fibrogenesis in the liver by [18F]TZ-Z09591, an Affibody molecule targeting platelet derived growth factor receptor ß.

BACKGROUND: Platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta (PDGFRß) is a receptor overexpressed on activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs). Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of PDGFRß could potentially allow the quantification of fibrogenesis in fibrotic livers. This study aims to evaluate a fluorine-18 radiolabeled Affibody molecule ([18F]TZ-Z09591) as a PET tracer for imaging liver fibrogenesis. RESULTS: In vitro specificity studies demonstrated that the trans-Cyclooctenes (TCO) conjugated Z09591 Affibody molecule had a picomolar affinity for human PDGFRß. Biodistribution performed on healthy rats showed rapid clearance of [18F]TZ-Z09591 through the kidneys and low liver background uptake. Autoradiography (ARG) studies on fibrotic livers from mice or humans correlated with histopathology results. Ex vivo biodistribution and ARG revealed that [18F]TZ-Z09591 binding in the liver was increased in fibrotic livers (p = 0.02) and corresponded to binding in fibrotic scars. CONCLUSIONS: Our study highlights [18F]TZ-Z09591 as a specific tracer for fibrogenic cells in the fibrotic liver, thus offering the potential to assess fibrogenesis clearly.

Pharmacokinetics of [¹8F]flutemetamol in wild-type rodents and its binding to beta amyloid deposits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of [(18)F]flutemetamol as a preclinical PET tracer for imaging ß-amyloid (Aß) deposition by comparing its pharmacokinetics to those of [(11)C]Pittsburgh compound B ([(11)C]PIB) in wild-type Sprague Dawley rats and C57Bl/6N mice. In addition, binding of [(18)F]flutemetamol to Aß deposits was studied in the Tg2576 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. METHODS: [(18)F]Flutemetamol biodistribution was evaluated using ex vivo PET methods and in vivo PET imaging in wild-type rats and mice. Metabolism and binding of [(11)C]PIB and [(18)F]flutemetamol to plasma proteins were analysed using thin-layer chromatography and ultrafiltration methods, respectively. Radiation dose estimates were calculated from rat ex vivo biodistribution data. The binding of [(18)F]flutemetamol to Aß deposits was also studied using ex vivo and in vitro autoradiography. The location of Aß deposits in the brain was determined with thioflavine S staining and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: The pharmacokinetics of [(18)F]flutemetamol resembled that of [(11)C]PIB in rats and mice. In vivo studies showed that both tracers readily entered the brain, and were excreted via the hepatobiliary pathway in both rats and mice. The metabolism of [(18)F]flutemetamol into radioactive metabolites was faster than that of [(11)C]PIB. [(18)F]Flutemetamol cleared more slowly from the brain than [(11)C]PIB, particularly from white matter, in line with its higher lipophilicity. Effective dose estimates for [(11)C]PIB and [(18)F]flutemetamol were 2.28 and 6.65 µSv/MBq, respectively. Autoradiographs showed [(18)F]flutemetamol binding to fibrillar Aß deposits in the brain of Tg2576 mice. CONCLUSION: Based on its pharmacokinetic profile, [(18)F]flutemetamol showed potential as a PET tracer for preclinical imaging. It showed good brain uptake and was bound to Aß deposits in the brain of Tg2576 mice. However, its high lipophilicity might complicate the analysis of PET data, particularly in small-animal imaging.

11C-PiB and 124I-Antibody PET Provide Differing Estimates of Brain Amyloid-ß After Therapeutic Intervention.

PET imaging of amyloid-ß (Aß) has become an important component of Alzheimer disease diagnosis. 11C-Pittsburgh compound B (11C-PiB) and analogs bind to fibrillar Aß. However, levels of nonfibrillar, soluble, aggregates of Aß appear more dynamic during disease progression and more affected by Aß-reducing treatments. The aim of this study was to compare an antibody-based PET ligand targeting nonfibrillar Aß with 11C-PiB after ß-secretase (BACE-1) inhibition in 2 Alzheimer disease mouse models at an advanced stage of Aß pathology. Methods: Transgenic ArcSwe mice (16 mo old) were treated with the BACE-1 inhibitor NB-360 for 2 mo, whereas another group was kept as controls. A third group was analyzed at the age of 16 mo as a baseline. Mice were PET-scanned with 11C-PiB to measure Aß plaque load followed by a scan with the bispecific radioligand 124I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 to investigate nonfibrillar aggregates of Aß. The same study design was then applied to another mouse model, AppNL-G-F In this case, NB-360 treatment was initiated at the age of 8 mo and animals were scanned with 11C-PiB-PET and 125I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 SPECT. Brain tissue was isolated after scanning, and Aß levels were assessed. Results: 124I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 concentrations measured with PET in hippocampus and thalamus of NB-360-treated ArcSwe mice were similar to those observed in baseline animals and significantly lower than concentrations observed in same-age untreated controls. Reduced 125I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 retention was also observed with SPECT in hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum of NB-360-treated AppNL-G-F mice. Radioligand in vivo concentrations corresponded to postmortem brain tissue analysis of soluble Aß aggregates. For both models, mice treated with NB-360 did not display a reduced 11C-PiB signal compared with untreated controls, and further, both NB-360 and control mice tended, although not reaching significance, to show higher 11C-PiB signal than the baseline groups. Conclusion: This study demonstrated the ability of an antibody-based radioligand to detect changes in brain Aß levels after anti-Aß therapy in ArcSwe and AppNL-G-F mice with pronounced Aß pathology. In contrast, the decreased Aß levels could not be quantified with 11C-PiB PET, suggesting that these ligands detect different pools of Aß.

Potential of [11C]UCB-J as a PET tracer for islets of Langerhans.

Biomarkers for the measurement of islets of Langerhans could help elucidate the etiology of diabetes. Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 A (SV2A) is a potential marker reported to be localized in the endocrine pancreas. [11C]UCB-J is a novel positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer that binds to SV2A and was previously evaluated as a synaptic marker in the central nervous system. Here, we evaluated whether [11C]UCB-J could be utilized as a PET tracer for the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas by targeting SV2A. The mRNA transcription of SV2A was evaluated in human isolated islets of Langerhans and exocrine tissue. In vitro autoradiography was performed on pancreas and brain sections from rats and pigs, and consecutive sections were immunostained for insulin. Sprague-Dawley rats were examined with PET-MRI and ex vivo autoradiography at baseline and with administration of levetiracetam (LEV). Similarly, pigs were examined with dynamic PET-CT over the pancreas and brain after administration of [11C]UCB-J at baseline and after pretreatment with LEV. In vivo radioligand binding was assessed using a one-compartment tissue model. The mRNA expression of SV2A was nearly 7 times higher in endocrine tissue than in exocrine tissue (p < 0.01). In vitro autoradiography displayed focal binding of [11C]UCB-J in the pancreas of rats and pigs, but the binding pattern did not overlap with the insulin-positive areas or with ex vivo autoradiography. In rats, pancreas binding was higher than that in negative control tissues but could not be blocked by LEV. In pigs, the pancreas and brain exhibited accumulation of [11C]UCB-J above the negative control tissue spleen. While brain binding could be blocked by pretreatment with LEV, a similar effect was not observed in the pancreas. Transcription data indicate SV2A to be a valid target for imaging islets of Langerhans, but [11C]UCB-J does not appear to have sufficient sensitivity for this application.

(S)-[18F]THK5117 brain uptake is associated with Aß plaques and MAO-B enzyme in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

The mouse model of beta-amyloid (Aß) deposition, APP/PS1-21, exhibits high brain uptake of the tau-tracer (S)-[18F]THK5117, although no neurofibrillary tangles are present in this mouse model. For this reason we investigated (S)-[18F]THK5117 off-target binding to Aß plaques and MAO-B enzyme in APP/PS1-21 transgenic (TG) mouse model of Aß deposition. APP/PS1-21 TG and wild-type (WT) control mice in four different age groups (2-26 months) were imaged antemortem by positron emission tomography with (S)-[18F]THK5117, and then brain autoradiography. Additional animals were used for immunohistochemical staining and MAO-B enzyme blocking study with deprenyl pre-treatment. Regional standardized uptake value ratios for the cerebellum revealed a significant temporal increase in (S)-[18F]THK5117 uptake in aged TG, but not WT, brain. Immunohistochemical staining revealed a similar increase in Aß plaques but not endogenous hyper-phosphorylated tau or MAO-B enzyme, and ex vivo autography showed that uptake of (S)-[18F]THK5117 co-localized with the amyloid pathology. Deprenyl hydrochloride pre-treatment reduced the binding of (S)-[18F]THK5117 in the neocortex, hippocampus, and thalamus. This study's findings suggest that increased (S)-[18F]THK5117 binding in aging APP/PS1-21 TG mice is mainly due to increasing Aß deposition, and to a lesser extent binding to MAO-B enzyme, but not hyper-phosphorylated tau.

Prodromal neuroinflammatory, cholinergic and metabolite dysfunction detected by PET and MRS in the TgF344-AD transgenic rat model of AD: a collaborative multi-modal study.

Mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are valuable but do not fully recapitulate human AD pathology, such as spontaneous Tau fibril accumulation and neuronal loss, necessitating the development of new AD models. The transgenic (TG) TgF344-AD rat has been reported to develop age-dependent AD features including neuronal loss and neurofibrillary tangles, despite only expressing APP and PSEN1 mutations, suggesting an improved modelling of AD hallmarks. Alterations in neuronal networks as well as learning performance and cognition tasks have been reported in this model, but none have combined a longitudinal, multimodal approach across multiple centres, which mimics the approaches commonly taken in clinical studies. We therefore aimed to further characterise the progression of AD-like pathology and cognition in the TgF344-AD rat from young-adults (6 months (m)) to mid- (12 m) and advanced-stage (18 m, 25 m) of the disease. Methods: TgF344-AD rats and wild-type (WT) littermates were imaged at 6 m, 12 m and 18 m with [18F]DPA-714 (TSPO, neuroinflammation), [18F]Florbetaben (Aß) and [18F]ASEM (α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor) and with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and with (S)-[18F]THK5117 (Tau) at 15 and 25 m. Behaviour tests were also performed at 6 m, 12 m and 18 m. Immunohistochemistry (CD11b, GFAP, Aß, NeuN, NeuroChrom) and Tau (S)-[18F]THK5117 autoradiography, immunohistochemistry and Western blot were also performed. Results: [18F]DPA-714 positron emission tomography (PET) showed an increase in neuroinflammation in TG vs wildtype animals from 12 m in the hippocampus (+11%), and at the advanced-stage AD in the hippocampus (+12%), the thalamus (+11%) and frontal cortex (+14%). This finding coincided with strong increases in brain microgliosis (CD11b) and astrogliosis (GFAP) at these time-points as assessed by immunohistochemistry. In vivo [18F]ASEM PET revealed an age-dependent increase uptake in the striatum and pallidum/nucleus basalis of Meynert in WT only, similar to that observed with this tracer in humans, resulting in TG being significantly lower than WT by 18 m. In vivo [18F]Florbetaben PET scanning detected Aß accumulation at 18 m, and (S)-[18F]THK5117 PET revealed subsequent Tau accumulation at 25m in hippocampal and cortical regions. Aß plaques were low but detectable by immunohistochemistry from 6 m, increasing further at 12 and 18 m with Tau-positive neurons adjacent to Aß plaques at 18 m. NeuroChrom (a pan neuronal marker) immunohistochemistry revealed a loss of neuronal staining at the Aß plaques locations, while NeuN labelling revealed an age-dependent decrease in hippocampal neuron number in both genotypes. Behavioural assessment using the novel object recognition task revealed that both WT & TgF344-AD animals discriminated the novel from familiar object at 3 m and 6 m of age. However, low levels of exploration observed in both genotypes at later time-points resulted in neither genotype successfully completing the task. Deficits in social interaction were only observed at 3 m in the TgF344-AD animals. By in vivo MRS, we showed a decrease in neuronal marker N-acetyl-aspartate in the hippocampus at 18 m (-18% vs age-matched WT, and -31% vs 6 m TG) and increased Taurine in the cortex of TG (+35% vs age-matched WT, and +55% vs 6 m TG). Conclusions: This multi-centre multi-modal study demonstrates, for the first time, alterations in brain metabolites, cholinergic receptors and neuroinflammation in vivo in this model, validated by robust ex vivo approaches. Our data confirm that, unlike mouse models, the TgF344-AD express Tau pathology that can be detected via PET, albeit later than by ex vivo techniques, and is a useful model to assess and longitudinally monitor early neurotransmission dysfunction and neuroinflammation in AD.

Fluorine-18-Labeled Antibody Ligands for PET Imaging of Amyloid-ß in Brain.

Antibodies are attractive as radioligands due to their outstanding specificity and high affinity, but their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) limits their use for CNS targets. To enhance brain distribution, amyloid-ß (Aß) antibodies were fused to a transferrin receptor (TfR) antibody fragment, enabling receptor mediated transport across the BBB. The aim of this study was to label these bispecific antibodies with fluorine-18 and use them for Aß PET imaging. Bispecific antibody ligands RmAb158-scFv8D3 and Tribody A2, both targeting Aß and TfR, were functionalized with trans-cyclooctene (TCO) groups and conjugated with 18F-labeled tetrazines through an inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reaction performed at ambient temperature. 18F-labeling did not affect antibody binding in vitro, and initial brain uptake was high. Conjugates with the first tetrazine variant ([18F]T1) displayed high uptake in bone, indicating extensive defluorination, a problem that was resolved with the second and third tetrazine variants ([18F]T2 and [18F]T3). Although the antibody ligands' half-life in blood was too long to optimally match the physical half-life of fluorine-18 (t1/2 = 110 min), [18F]T3-Tribody A2 PET seemed to discriminate transgenic mice (tg-ArcSwe) with Aß deposits from wild-type mice 12 h after injection. This study demonstrates that 18F-labeling of bispecific, brain penetrating antibodies is feasible and, with further optimization, could be used for CNS PET imaging.

Insights into disseminated MS brain pathology with multimodal diffusion tensor and PET imaging.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate in vivo the co-occurrence of microglial activation and microstructural white matter (WM) damage in the MS brain and to examine their association with clinical disability. METHODS: 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO) brain PET imaging was performed for evaluation of microglial activation by using the radioligand [11C](R)-PK11195. TSPO binding was evaluated as the distribution volume ratio (DVR) from dynamic PET images. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and conventional MRI (cMRI) were performed at the same time. Mean fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean (MD), axial, and radial (RD) diffusivities were calculated within the whole normal-appearing WM (NAWM) and segmented NAWM regions appearing normal in cMRI. Fifty-five patients with MS and 15 healthy controls (HCs) were examined. RESULTS: Microstructural damage was observed in the NAWM of the MS brain. DTI parameters of patients with MS were significantly altered in the NAWM compared with an age- and sex-matched HC group: mean FA was decreased, and MD and RD were increased. These structural abnormalities correlated with increased TSPO binding in the whole NAWM and in the temporal NAWM (p < 0.05 for all correlations; p < 0.01 for RD in the temporal NAWM). Both compromised WM integrity and increased microglial activation in the NAWM correlated significantly with higher clinical disability measured with the Expanded Disability Status Scale score. CONCLUSIONS: Widespread structural disruption in the NAWM is linked to neuroinflammation, and both phenomena associate with clinical disability. Multimodal PET and DTI allow in vivo evaluation of widespread MS pathology not visible using cMRI.

Exploring Structural Determinants of Inhibitor Affinity and Selectivity in Complexes with Histone Deacetylase 6.

Inhibition of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cancer, chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy, and neurodegenerative disease. The recent X-ray crystal structure determination of HDAC6 enables an understanding of structural features directing affinity and selectivity in the active site. Here, we present the X-ray crystal structures of five HDAC6-inhibitor complexes that illuminate key molecular features of the inhibitor linker and capping groups that facilitate and differentiate binding to HDAC6. In particular, aromatic and heteroaromatic linkers nestle within an aromatic cleft defined by F583 and F643, and different aromatic linkers direct the capping group toward shallow pockets defined by the L1 loop, the L2 loop, or somewhere in between these pockets. These results expand our understanding of factors contributing to the selective inhibition of HDAC6, particularly regarding interactions that can be targeted in the region of the L2 pocket.

Translation of HDAC6 PET Imaging Using [18F]EKZ-001-cGMP Production and Measurement of HDAC6 Target Occupancy in Nonhuman Primates.

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is a multifunctional cytoplasmic enzyme involved in diverse cellular processes such as intracellular transport and protein quality control. Inhibition of HDAC6 can alleviate defects in cell and rodent models of certain diseases, particularly neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. However, while HDAC6 represents a potentially powerful therapeutic target, development of effective brain-penetrant HDAC6 inhibitors remains challenging. Recently, [18F]EKZ-001 ([18F]Bavarostat), a brain-penetrant positron emission tomography (PET) radioligand with high affinity and selectivity toward HDAC6, was developed and evaluated preclinically for its ability to bind HDAC6. Herein, we describe the efficient and robust fully automated current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP) compliant production method. [18F]EKZ-001 quantification methods were validated in nonhuman primates (NHP) using full kinetic modeling, and [18F]EKZ-001 PET was applied to compare dose-occupancy relationships between two HDAC6 inhibitors, EKZ-317 and ACY-775. [18F]EKZ-001 is cGMP produced with an average decay-corrected radiochemical yield of 14% and an average molar activity of 204 GBq/µmol. We demonstrate that a two-tissue compartmental model and Logan graphical analysis are appropriate for [18F]EKZ-001 PET quantification in NHP brain. Blocking studies show that the novel compound EKZ-317 achieves higher target occupancy than ACY-775. This work supports the translation of [18F]EKZ-001 PET for first-in-human studies.