Scleritis and Development of Immune-Mediated Disease: A Retrospective Chart Review.

OBJECTIVE: Scleritis may be idiopathic or caused by trauma, infections, or an immune-mediated disease (IMD). Our study aimed to understand the relationship between scleritis and IMD, including presenting characteristics, serologies, and treatment course. Understanding these associations may allow clinicians to risk-stratify patients and predict their clinical and treatment course. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of 341 patients with scleritis seen at a tertiary care center between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2020. Demographics, scleritis characteristics, treatment response, recurrence, and serologic data were compared among patients with idiopathic and IMD-associated scleritis. RESULTS: Among patients with scleritis seen, 145 patients (43%) had an associated IMD, most commonly rheumatoid arthritis (RA; 39%), vasculitis (21%), or inflammatory bowel disease (14%). In most cases, the IMD diagnosis predated the scleritis presentation (63%), though vasculitis cases were more likely to develop during or after scleritis episodes. There were no significant differences in demographics or treatment failures among patients with scleritis with and without associated IMDs. Patients with IMDs were more likely to have a recurrence of scleritis (62% vs 49%, P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: At our ophthalmology center, 43% of patients with scleritis had an associated IMD, and most patients with an IMD were symptomatic from this disease prior to scleritis presentation. RA was the most commonly associated condition and typically predated the scleritis, whereas vasculitis was more likely diagnosed during or after the scleritis episode. Scleritis among patients with IMD is more likely to recur compared to scleritis that is idiopathic.

Use of Immunosuppression and the Risk of Subsequent Overall or Cancer Mortality.

PURPOSE: To determine the incidence of all-cause and cancer mortality (CM) in association with immunosuppression. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study at ocular inflammatory disease (OID) subspecialty centers. We harvested exposure and covariate data retrospectively from clinic inception (earliest in 1979) through 2010 inclusive. Then we ascertained overall and cancer-specific mortalities by National Death Index linkage. We constructed separate Cox models to evaluate overall and CM for each class of immunosuppressant and for each individual immunosuppressant compared with person-time unexposed to any immunosuppression. PARTICIPANTS: Patients with noninfectious OID, excluding those with human immunodeficiency infection or preexisting cancer. METHODS: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors (mostly infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept); antimetabolites (methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, azathioprine); calcineurin inhibitors (cyclosporine); and alkylating agents (cyclophosphamide) were given when clinically indicated in this noninterventional cohort study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Overall mortality and CM. RESULTS: Over 187 151 person-years (median follow-up 10.0 years), during which 15 938 patients were at risk for mortality, we observed 1970 deaths, 435 due to cancer. Both patients unexposed to immunosuppressants (standardized mortality ratio [SMR] = 0.95, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.90-1.01) and those exposed to immunosuppressants but free of systemic inflammatory diseases (SIDs) (SMR = 1.04, 95% CI, 0.95-1.14) had similar mortality risk to the US population. Comparing patients exposed to TNF inhibitors, antimetabolites, calcineurin inhibitors, and alkylating agents with patients not exposed to any of these, we found that overall mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] = 0.88, 0.89, 0.90, 1.11) and CM (aHR = 1.25, 0.89, 0.86, 1.23) were not significantly increased. These results were stable in sensitivity analyses whether excluding or including patients with SID, across 0-, 3-, or 5-year lags and across quartiles of immunosuppressant dose and duration. CONCLUSIONS: Our results, in a cohort where the indication for treatment was proven unassociated with mortality risk, found that commonly used immunosuppressants-especially the antimetabolites methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, and azathioprine; the TNF inhibitors adalimumab and infliximab, and cyclosporine-were not associated with increased overall and CM over a median cohort follow-up of 10.0 years. These results suggest the safety of these agents with respect to overall and CM for patients treated with immunosuppression for a wide range of inflammatory diseases. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Management of Concomitant Inflammatory Bowel Disease or Uveitis in Patients with Psoriatic Arthritis: An Updated Review Informing the 2021 GRAPPA Treatment Recommendations.

OBJECTIVE: Several advanced therapies have been licensed across the related conditions of psoriatic arthritis (PsA), Crohn disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC), and noninfectious uveitis. We sought to summarize results from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the efficacy and safety of advanced therapies for these related conditions in patients with PsA. METHODS: We updated the previous systematic search conducted in 2013 with literature reviews of MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Library (from February 2013 to August 2020) on this subject; only those new studies are presented here. The quality of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) framework. RESULTS: The number of RCTs meeting eligibility criteria were 12 for CD, 15 for UC, and 5 for uveitis. The tumor necrosis factor inhibitor (TNFi) class appears to be efficacious and safe across CD, UC, and uveitis, with the exception of etanercept. Interleukin 12/23 inhibitors (IL-12/23i) are efficacious for CD and UC. Phase II and III RCTs of Janus kinase inhibitors (JAKi) and IL-23i in CD and UC are promising in terms of efficacy and safety. IL-17i must be used with great caution in patients with PsA at high risk of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). RCTs in uveitis have mainly studied adalimumab. CONCLUSION: We have identified 32 recent RCTs in IBD and uveitis and updated recommendations for managing patients with PsA and these related conditions. A multispecialty approach is essential to effectively, safely, and holistically manage such patients. Advanced therapies are not equally efficacious across these related conditions, with dosing regimens and safety varying.

Inflammation and Fibrosis in Orbital Inflammatory Disease: A Histopathologic Analysis.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare the histopathologic inflammation and fibrosis of orbital adipose tissue in orbital inflammatory disease (OID) specimens. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, inflammation, and fibrosis in orbital adipose tissue from patients with thyroid-associated orbitopathy (TAO), granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), sarcoidosis, nonspecific orbital inflammation (NSOI), and healthy controls were scored by 2 masked ocular pathologists. Both categories were scored on a scale of 0 to 3 with scoring criteria based on the percentage of specimens containing inflammation or fibrosis, respectively. Tissue specimens were collected from oculoplastic surgeons at 8 international centers representing 4 countries. Seventy-four specimens were included: 25 with TAO, 6 with orbital GPA, 7 with orbital sarcoidosis, 24 with NSOI, and 12 healthy controls. RESULTS: The mean inflammation and fibrosis scores for healthy controls were 0.0 and 1.1, respectively. Orbital inflammatory disease groups' inflammation (I) and fibrosis (F) scores, formatted [I, F] with respective p -values when compared to controls, were: TAO [0.2, 1.4] ( p = 1, 1), GPA [1.9, 2.6] ( p = 0.003, 0.009), sarcoidosis [2.4, 1.9] ( p = 0.001, 0.023), and NSOI [1.3, 1.8] ( p ≤ 0.001, 0.018). Sarcoidosis had the highest mean inflammation score. The pairwise analysis demonstrated that sarcoidosis had a significantly higher mean inflammation score than NSOI ( p = 0.036) and TAO ( p < 0.0001), but no difference when compared to GPA. GPA had the highest mean fibrosis score, with pairwise analysis demonstrating a significantly higher mean fibrosis score than TAO ( p = 0.048). CONCLUSIONS: Mean inflammation and fibrosis scores in TAO orbital adipose tissue samples did not differ from healthy controls. In contrast, the more "intense" inflammatory diseases such as GPA, sarcoidosis, and NSOI did demonstrate higher histopathologic inflammation and fibrosis. This has implications in prognosis, therapeutic selection, and response monitoring in orbital inflammatory disease.

Long-Term Safety and Efficacy of Adalimumab in Patients with Noninfectious Intermediate Uveitis, Posterior Uveitis, or Panuveitis.

PURPOSE: To evaluate long-term efficacy and safety of extended treatment with adalimumab in patients with noninfectious intermediate, posterior, or panuveitis. DESIGN: Open-label, multicenter, phase 3 extension study (VISUAL III). PARTICIPANTS: Adults who had completed a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 parent trial (VISUAL I or II) without treatment failure (inactive uveitis) or who discontinued the study after meeting treatment failure criteria (active uveitis). METHODS: Patients received subcutaneous adalimumab 40 mg every other week. Data were collected for ≤ 362 weeks. Adverse events (AEs) were recorded until 70 days after the last dose. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Long-term safety and quiescence; other efficacy variables included inflammatory lesions, anterior chamber cell and vitreous haze grade, macular edema, visual acuity, and dose of uveitis-related systemic corticosteroids. RESULTS: At study entry, 67% of patients (283/424) showed active uveitis and 33% (141/424) showed inactive uveitis; 60 patients subsequently met exclusion criteria, and 364 were included in the intention-to-treat analysis. Efficacy variables were analyzed through week 150, when approximately 50% of patients (214/424) remained in the study. Patients showing quiescence increased from 34% (122/364) at week 0 to 85% (153/180) at week 150. Corticosteroid-free quiescence was achieved by 54% (66/123) and 89% (51/57) of patients with active or inactive uveitis at study entry. Mean daily dose of systemic corticosteroids was reduced from 9.4 ± 17.1 mg/day at week 0 (n = 359) to 1.5 ± 3.9 mg/day at week 150 (n = 181). The percentage of patients who achieved other efficacy variables increased over time for those with active uveitis at study entry and was maintained for those with inactive uveitis. The most frequently reported treatment-emergent AEs of special interest were infections (n = 275; 79 events/100 patient-years [PY]); AEs and serious AEs occurred at a rate of 396 events/100 PY and 15 events/100 PY, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term treatment with adalimumab led to quiescence and reduced corticosteroid use for patients who entered VISUAL III with active uveitis and led to maintenance of quiescence for those with inactive uveitis. AEs were comparable with those reported in the parent trials and consistent with the known safety profile of adalimumab.

The potential of tear proteomics for diagnosis and management of orbital inflammatory disorders including Graves' ophthalmopathy.

BACKGROUND: Orbital compartments harbor a variety of tissues that can be independently targeted in a plethora of disorders resulting in sight-threatening risks. Orbital inflammatory disorders (OID) including Graves' ophthalmopathy, sarcoidosis, IgG4 disease, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, and nonspecific orbital inflammation constitute an important cause of pain, diplopia and vision loss. Physical examination, laboratory tests, imaging, and even biopsy are not always adequate to classify orbital inflammation which is frequently deemed "nonspecific". Tear sampling and testing provide a potential "window" to the orbital disease process through a non-invasive technique that allows longitudinal sampling as the disease evolves. Using PubMed/Medline, we identified potentially relevant articles on tear proteomics published in the English language between 1988 and 2021. Of 303 citations obtained, 225 contained empirical data on tear proteins, including 33 publications on inflammatory conditions, 15 in glaucoma, 15 in thyroid eye disease, 1 in sarcoidosis (75) and 2 in uveitis (77,78). Review articles were used to identify an additional 56 relevant articles through citation search. In this review, we provide a short introduction to the potential use of tears as a diagnostic fluid and tool to investigate the mechanism of ocular diseases. A general review of previous tear proteomics studies is also provided, with a focus on Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO), and a discussion of unmet needs in the diagnosis and treatment of orbital inflammatory disease (OID). The review concludes by pointing out current limitations of mass spectrometric analysis of tear proteins and summarizes future needs in the field.

Tofacitinib as a Steroid-Sparing Therapy in Pulmonary Sarcoidosis, an Open-Label Prospective Proof-of-Concept Study.

This is a prospective, open-label, proof-of-concept study of tofacitinib, a Janus kinase inhibitor, as a steroid-sparing therapy in corticosteroid-dependent pulmonary sarcoidosis. Five patients with corticosteroid-dependent pulmonary sarcoidosis were treated with tofacitinib 5 mg twice daily. The primary endpoint was a ≥ 50% reduction in corticosteroids at week 16 with no worsening in pulmonary function or respiratory symptoms. 60% of patients (3/5) met the primary endpoint. One patient was lost to follow up prior to steroid taper, and another was withdrawn due to worsening of known neurosarcoidosis. The three patients who met the primary endpoint each tapered to ≤ 5 mg/day prednisone, respiratory symptoms improved, and spirometry remained stable. In this proof-of-concept study, the addition of a JAK-inhibitor allowed 60% of patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis to successfully taper corticosteroids. JAK-inhibitors are a promising therapy for pulmonary sarcoidosis, which require further investigation in randomized trials.Trial Registration clinicaltrials.gov NCT03793439; registered Jan 4, 2019.

Factors Predictive of Remission of Chronic Anterior Uveitis.

PURPOSE: To estimate the incidence of medication-free remission of chronic anterior uveitis and identify predictors thereof. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: Patients diagnosed with anterior uveitis of longer than 3 months' duration followed up at United States tertiary uveitis care facilities. METHODS: Estimation of remission incidence and identification of associated predictors used survival analysis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence of medication-free remission. For the primary analysis, remission was defined as inactive uveitis while off treatment at all visits spanning an interval of at least 90 days or-for patients who did not return for follow-up after 90 days-remaining inactive without receiving suppressive medications at all of the last visits. Association of factors potentially predictive of medication-free remission was also studied. RESULTS: Two thousand seven hundred ninety-five eyes of 1634 patients with chronic anterior uveitis were followed up over 7936 eye-years (4676 person-years). The cumulative medication-free, person-year remission incidence within 5 years was 32.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 30.4%-35.2%). Baseline clinical factors predictive of reduced remission incidence included longer duration of uveitis at presentation (for 2 to 5 years vs. less than 6 months: adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 0.61; 95% CI, 0.44-0.83), bilateral uveitis (aHR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.59-0.96), prior cataract surgery (aHR, 0.70; 95% CI 0.56-0.88), and glaucoma surgery (aHR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.45-0.90). Two time-updated characteristics were also predictive of reduced remission incidence: keratic precipitates (aHR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.21-0.60) and synechiae (aHR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.41-0.93). Systemic diagnosis with juvenile idiopathic arthritis and spondyloarthropathy were also associated with reduced remission incidence. Older age at presentation was associated with higher incidence of remission (for age ≥40 years vs. <40 years: aHR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.02-1.63). CONCLUSIONS: Approximately one third of patients with chronic anterior uveitis remit within 5 years. Longer duration of uveitis, younger age, bilateral uveitis, prior cataract surgery, glaucoma surgery, presence of keratic precipitates and synechiae, and systemic diagnoses of juvenile idiopathic arthritis and spondyloarthropathy predict reduced remission incidence; patients with these factors should be managed taking into account the higher probability of a longer disease course.

The use of biologics for uveitis associated with spondyloarthritis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The term spondyloarthritis (SpA) encompasses a group of chronic inflammatory disorders of the joints, including ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, juvenile SpA and undifferentiated SpA. These diseases can also present with uveitis, or intraocular inflammation, which can be controlled with biologics. RECENT FINDINGS: Profound success has occurred with the tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitors infliximab and adalimumab, moderate success with certolizumab pegol and golimumab and less encouraging results with etanercept. Promising results have also been demonstrated with interleukin-17 (IL-17) antagonists, such as secukinumab ixekizumab or combined IL-12 and 23 medications, such as ustekinumab. SUMMARY: In cases of uveitis that require long-term control, biologics are an emerging and valuable class of medications for these patients, and may provide avenues to control both their underlying SpA and uveitis manifestations.

Fecal transplants in spondyloarthritis and uveitis: ready for a clinical trial?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The intestinal microbiome is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). There are many shared clinical manifestations between IBD and spondyloarthritis (SpA), of which the most common are peripheral arthritis and uveitis. Clinical overlap along with similar genetics between these diseases suggests a possible shared pathogenetic mechanism, which might center on the intestinal microbiota. In this review, we discuss the available evidence that SpA is a microbiome-driven disease and indicate how SpA-associated uveitis could be tied to gut dysbiosis. We conclude by discussing different treatment paradigms targeting the intestinal microbiome for SpA. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent studies support the growing evidence of the intestinal microbiome as a crucial player in SpA disease pathogenesis. There is emerging evidence that the gut microbiome may play a causative role in uveitis. SUMMARY: The field is beginning to discover a new level of understanding how the intestinal microbiome is involved in SpA. Treatment methods to alter intestinal microbiota to treat SpA-related diseases are still in its infancy.

Guidance on Noncorticosteroid Systemic Immunomodulatory Therapy in Noninfectious Uveitis: Fundamentals Of Care for UveitiS (FOCUS) Initiative.

TOPIC: An international, expert-led consensus initiative to develop systematic, evidence-based recommendations for the treatment of noninfectious uveitis in the era of biologics. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The availability of biologic agents for the treatment of human eye disease has altered practice patterns for the management of noninfectious uveitis. Current guidelines are insufficient to assure optimal use of noncorticosteroid systemic immunomodulatory agents. METHODS: An international expert steering committee comprising 9 uveitis specialists (including both ophthalmologists and rheumatologists) identified clinical questions and, together with 6 bibliographic fellows trained in uveitis, conducted a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol systematic review of the literature (English language studies from January 1996 through June 2016; Medline [OVID], the Central Cochrane library, EMBASE, CINAHL, SCOPUS, BIOSIS, and Web of Science). Publications included randomized controlled trials, prospective and retrospective studies with sufficient follow-up, case series with 15 cases or more, peer-reviewed articles, and hand-searched conference abstracts from key conferences. The proposed statements were circulated among 130 international uveitis experts for review. A total of 44 globally representative group members met in late 2016 to refine these guidelines using a modified Delphi technique and assigned Oxford levels of evidence. RESULTS: In total, 10 questions were addressed resulting in 21 evidence-based guidance statements covering the following topics: when to start noncorticosteroid immunomodulatory therapy, including both biologic and nonbiologic agents; what data to collect before treatment; when to modify or withdraw treatment; how to select agents based on individual efficacy and safety profiles; and evidence in specific uveitic conditions. Shared decision-making, communication among providers and safety monitoring also were addressed as part of the recommendations. Pharmacoeconomic considerations were not addressed. CONCLUSIONS: Consensus guidelines were developed based on published literature, expert opinion, and practical experience to bridge the gap between clinical needs and medical evidence to support the treatment of patients with noninfectious uveitis with noncorticosteroid immunomodulatory agents.

New developments in uveitis associated with HLA B27.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Uveitis is the most common, clinically apparent, extra-articular manifestation of axial spondyloarthritis. This review summarizes recent publications related to this form of uveitis. RECENT FINDINGS: Studies published since the start of 2015 address the worldwide prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B27-associated uveitis, the prevalence of axial spondyloarthritis among patients with B27-associated acute anterior uveitis (AAU), the genetics of AAU and some of the clinical implications of AAU. Progress has been made in the treatment of uveitis in general and in the treatment of uveitis in association with spondyloarthropathy in particular. The pathogenesis of AAU might derive clues from the above as well as from an understanding of the microbiome and possibly from knowledge derived from uveitis in association with Ebola. SUMMARY: Although HLA B27-associated uveitis has been recognized since 1973, a variety of recent observations shed new light on this common clinical association with spondyloarthritis.

Development of a Glucocorticoid Toxicity Index (GTI) using multicriteria decision analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a Glucocorticoid Toxicity Index (GTI) to assess glucocorticoid (GC)-related morbidity and GC-sparing ability of other therapies. METHODS: Nineteen experts on GC use and outcome measures from 11 subspecialties participated. Ten experts were from the USA; nine from Canada, Europe or Australia. Group consensus methods and multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) were used. A Composite GTI and Specific List comprise the overall GTI. The Composite GTI reflects toxicity likely to change during a clinical trial. The Composite GTI toxicities occur commonly, vary with GC exposure, and are weighted and scored. Relative weights for items in the Composite GTI were derived by group consensus and MCDA. The Specific List is designed to capture GC toxicity not included in the Composite GTI. The Composite GTI was evaluated by application to paper cases by the investigators and an external group of 17 subspecialists. RESULTS: Thirty-one toxicity items were included in the Composite GTI and 23 in the Specific List. Composite GTI evaluation showed high inter-rater agreement (investigators κ 0.88, external raters κ 0.90). To assess the degree to which the Composite GTI corresponds to expert clinical judgement, participants ranked 15 cases by clinical judgement in order of highest to lowest GC toxicity. Expert rankings were then compared with case ranking by the Composite GTI, yielding excellent agreement (investigators weighted κ 0.87, external raters weighted κ 0.77). CONCLUSIONS: We describe the development and initial evaluation of a comprehensive instrument for the assessment of GC toxicity.

Risk of Ocular Hypertension in Adults with Noninfectious Uveitis.

PURPOSE: To describe the risk and risk factors for ocular hypertension (OHT) in adults with noninfectious uveitis. DESIGN: Retrospective, multicenter, cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: Patients aged ≥18 years with noninfectious uveitis seen between 1979 and 2007 at 5 tertiary uveitis clinics. METHODS: Demographic, ocular, and treatment data were extracted from medical records of uveitis cases. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalent and incident OHT with intraocular pressures (IOPs) of ≥21 mmHg, ≥30 mmHg, and increase of ≥10 mmHg from documented IOP recordings (or use of treatment for OHT). RESULTS: Among 5270 uveitic eyes of 3308 patients followed for OHT, the mean annual incidence rates for OHT ≥21 mmHg and OHT ≥30 mmHg are 14.4% (95% confidence interval [CI], 13.4-15.5) and 5.1% (95% CI, 4.7-5.6) per year, respectively. Statistically significant risk factors for incident OHT ≥30 mmHg included systemic hypertension (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 1.29); worse presenting visual acuity (≤20/200 vs. ≥20/40, aHR, 1.47); pars plana vitrectomy (aHR, 1.87); history of OHT in the other eye: IOP ≥21 mmHg (aHR, 2.68), ≥30 mmHg (aHR, 4.86) and prior/current use of IOP-lowering drops or surgery in the other eye (aHR, 4.17); anterior chamber cells: 1+ (aHR, 1.43) and ≥2+ (aHR, 1.59) vs. none; epiretinal membrane (aHR, 1.25); peripheral anterior synechiae (aHR, 1.81); current use of prednisone >7.5 mg/day (aHR, 1.86); periocular corticosteroids in the last 3 months (aHR, 2.23); current topical corticosteroid use [≥8×/day vs. none] (aHR, 2.58); and prior use of fluocinolone acetonide implants (aHR, 9.75). Bilateral uveitis (aHR, 0.69) and previous hypotony (aHR, 0.43) were associated with statistically significantly lower risk of OHT. CONCLUSIONS: Ocular hypertension is sufficiently common in eyes treated for uveitis that surveillance for OHT is essential at all visits for all cases. Patients with 1 or more of the several risk factors identified are at particularly high risk and must be carefully managed. Modifiable risk factors, such as use of corticosteroids, suggest opportunities to reduce OHT risk within the constraints of the overriding need to control the primary ocular inflammatory disease.

Ocular sarcoidosis: new diagnostic modalities and treatment.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Ocular involvement in sarcoidosis is present in up to 80% of patients and is frequently manifested before diagnosis of the underlying systemic disease. Considering the therapeutic consequences, early diagnosis of the underlying disease is advantageous in patients presenting with ocular inflammation. There are several ocular findings suggestive of underlying sarcoidosis, such as granulomatous keratic precipitates, iris nodules, cells in the vitreous humor known as snowballs and snowbanks, and retinal periphlebitis. High suspicion is crucial for the diagnosis of sarcoidosis. This review on ocular sarcoidosis will mainly focus on new diagnostic and treatment modalities. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent studies found possible new diagnostic indicators for the diagnosis of ocular sarcoidosis which include not only serum profiles but also vitreous sample analysis. Ophthalmologic imaging techniques have improved to investigate the ocular structure in detail. Results from recent uveitis clinical trials have included sarcoidosis as an underlying cause and have reported positive results. SUMMARY: The diagnosis of ocular sarcoidosis can be challenging in some cases. High suspicion is important to diagnose ocular sarcoidosis with various laboratory and ophthalmic tools. There are many possible options for the treatment of ocular sarcoidosis including various biologic agents.

The interaction between host genetics and the microbiome in the pathogenesis of spondyloarthropathies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The intestinal microbiome is increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of ankylosing spondylitis, reactive arthritis, and other diseases collectively known as the spondyloarthropathies (SpAs). In common with other complex inflammatory diseases, SpAs have both a strong genetic and environmental component. Recent genetic studies have highlighted host pathways that may intersect the host-microbiota interaction and offer novel paradigms to understand the pathophysiology of these diseases. RECENT FINDINGS: Genetic association studies have identified genes such as RUNX3, PTPEN2, and IL-33 as susceptibility loci for SpAs. Functional studies in humans have extended knowledge of established genetic risk factors for ankylosing spondylitis that include ERAP1, ERAP2, and interleukin-23R. Recent basic research has identified new mechanisms that regulate host immune responses to the microbiota that conceivably may be dysregulated in SpA. SUMMARY: Intestinal barrier function, deletional tolerance, Th17 signature response, and endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways have been recently linked to SpA. Dysregulated immune responses to the gut microbiota and an altered microbial community structure are shared features of SpA. Although the cause-effect dynamic of this relationship remains equivocal, it nonetheless has major implications for both intestinal and extra-intestinal pathology observed in SpA.

Retinal vasculitis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Ophthalmologists and rheumatologists frequently have a miscommunication among themselves, and as a result differ in their opinion for patients consulting them with retinal vasculitis. This report seeks to establish a common understanding of the term, retinal vasculitis, and to review recent studies on this diagnosis. RECENT FINDINGS: The genetic basis of some rare forms of retinal vascular disease has recently been described. Identified genes include CAPN5, TREX1, and TNFAIP3; Behçet's disease is a systemic illness that is very commonly associated with occlusive retinal vasculitis; retinal imaging, including fluorescein angiography and other newer imaging modalities, has proven crucial to the identification and characterization of retinal vasculitis and its complications; although monoclonal antibodies to interleukin-17A or interleukin-1 beta failed in trials for Behçet's disease, antibodies to TNF-alpha, either infliximab or adalimumab, have demonstrated consistent benefit in managing this disease. Interferon treatment and B-cell depletion therapy via rituximab may be beneficial in certain types of retinal vasculitis. SUMMARY: Retinal vasculitis is an important entity for rheumatologists to understand. Retinal vasculitis associated with Behçet's disease responds to monoclonal antibodies that neutralize TNF, but the many other forms of noninfectious retinal vasculitis may require alternate therapeutic management.