Community engagement to manage acute malnutrition: implementation research in Kupang district, Indonesia.

OBJECTIVE: To improve the low coverage and performance of a programme on community-based management of acute malnutrition, implemented between October 2015 and April 2018 in Kupang district in rural Indonesia. METHODS: To investigate why the coverage and performance were low in the first year of the programme, we conducted a semiquantitative evaluation between August and September 2016. We used the results from the evaluation to inform programme improvement, by developing and modifying community mobilization strategies. We employed a multipronged approach to improve community awareness on acute malnutrition and on community-based services for such condition. This approach involved workshops, focus discussion groups in the community and sensitization events at health posts that had issues with community engagement. Community health workers increased their efforts in active case finding by visiting households with children who had missed the community health post sessions. We measured the performance using three Sphere minimum standard performance indicators: proportion of children recovering (> 75%); defaulting (< 15%); and dying (<10%). RESULTS: The community mobilization efforts increased the screening rate from 17% (564/3278) in October 2015 to 66% (6793/10 251) in March 2018. In 2017, the programme met the three performance indicators: 79% (256/326) of children recovered; 10% (34/326) defaulted; and less than 1% (2/326) died. CONCLUSION: In Indonesia, community mobilization is central for addressing severe acute malnutrition in children younger than five years. This strategy includes securing political leadership and effective messaging alongside locally tailored strategies and continuous ground-level support.

Potential interventions targeting adolescent nutrition in Indonesia: a literature review.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to take stock of nutrition interventions that warrant consideration as a minimum package of interventions in Indonesia to improve four key nutrition indicators for adolescents: stunting, thinness, overweight and anaemia. DESIGN: We conducted a review of the peer-reviewed literature published between 1995 and 2017 on nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions that target adolescents in Indonesia. The search to identify studies was conducted in PubMed, Google Scholar and EMBASE, using key search terms. We also explored programmatic and policy documents from the grey literature as they related to adolescents and/or Indonesia. Our search yielded thirty-five peer-reviewed articles and programmatic documents. SETTING: Indonesia. SUBJECTS: Adolescent girls and boys. RESULTS: There is very limited evidence on the impact of interventions specifically among adolescents in Indonesia. Nevertheless, findings from our review suggest the minimum package of interventions in Indonesia could include the following nutrition-specifc interventions: (i) iron-folic acid supplements, paired with antihelminths delivered at scale via school-based platforms and through health centres; and (ii) diet counselling and nutrition education provided through school-based platforms, adolescent youth centres/peer education and technology-based platforms. The minimum package could also include the following nutrition-sensitive interventions: (i) improving access to reproductive health services; and (ii) increasing the coverage of interventions designed to increase school attendance. CONCLUSIONS: Programmes and policies targeting adolescent nutrition are relatively new and coverage is low. To improve the nutritional status of this vulnerable population, additional evaluations of adolescent programming and surveillance data on adolescents are needed.

Multi-criteria Mapping of Stakeholders' Viewpoints in Five Southeast Asian Countries on Strategies to Reduce Micronutrient Deficiencies Among Children and Women of Reproductive Age: Findings from the SMILING Project.

BACKGROUND: Despite scientific evidence on the potential impact or importance of specific interventions to improve micronutrient status of vulnerable groups, political commitment and extensive support from national stakeholders is paramount to support introduction and implementation of these interventions at national level. In order to develop efficient nutritional strategies to improve the micronutrient status of children < 5 years of age and women of reproductive age that will be supported by a wide range of stakeholders, a better understanding of viewpoints on the nutrition politics and strategies is necessary. Multi-criteria mapping (MCM) was successfully used to assess the stakeholder's viewpoint in a wide variety of contexts since the late 1990s. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study was to assess the viewpoints of stakeholders on a wide range of potential nutritional interventions in the five Southeast Asian countries participating in the SMILING project. METHOD: MCM methodology was used to appraise the stakeholder's viewpoints in five countries. RESULTS: The results show that the overall stakeholders' preference was for actions already implemented in their country rather than for new, innovative options, even for supplementation. Indirect interventions such like food fortification (except in Indonesia), delayed cord clamping or food-based approaches were generally less favored by the stakeholders. However, the majority of stakeholders agreed that new approaches should be considered and put in place in the future provided that evidence of their impact was demonstrated, that they received adequate technical support for their implementation and their monitoring, and that they will be accompanied by strong advocacy among decision-makers, civil society and beneficiaries. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: To conclude, for the introduction of new, innovative strategies to reduce micronutrient deficiencies in South-East Asia, convincing stakeholders appears to be the first hurdle to be taken.

Coping strategies for food insecurity among adolescent girls during the lean season in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia: a qualitative study.

One in eight people suffer from chronic hunger, leading to an insecure food situation. Chronic hunger mostly occurs in developing countries and includes adolescent girls. Our qualitative study, with data collected in December 2012, provided the results of an exploration of the experiences and strategies implemented by fifteen adolescent girls who tried to cope with their condition of living in food-insecure families. The age of the girls ranged from 10 to 19 years. Their coping strategies were grouped into self-initiated and parent-initiated strategies. Self-initiated coping strategies that were the girls' own initiatives included eating only rice without any vegetables or side dish, eating less-desirable food, reducing portion size, skipping meals, saving pocket money and earning money to buy food. The parent-initiated coping strategies that were initiated by the parents and followed by the girls included selling their own field produce and livestock, asking for food, borrowing food and storing maize for 6 months up to 1 year. These results show that adolescent girls living in food-insecure areas implement several coping strategies in severe conditions, which parents may not be aware of, and such conditions may compromise their growth and health. The acknowledgement of such coping strategies and the girls' food insecurity condition can lead to a useful and suitable food insecurity alleviation programme for the girls and their families.

Child feeding practices in families of working and nonworking mothers of Indonesian middle class urban families: what are the problems?

This study aims to explore the feeding practices in families of working and nonworking mothers with children (aged 12-36 months) of different nutritional status and types of domestic caregiver in Indonesian urban middle class families. It was designed as a qualitative multiple case study. Mothers and caregivers from 26 families were interviewed in depth, and caregivers were categorized as family and domestic-paid caregivers. The result suggested that offering formula milk to young children was a common practice, and there was a high recognition and familiarity toward a range of formula milk brands. Mothers reported challenges in encouraging their children to eat, and in some cases they appeared to lack knowledge on overcoming their child's feeding problem. The findings suggested the need to address the child feeding problems experienced by mothers in order to overcome the double burden of child nutrition in Indonesia.

Child-care and feeding practices of urban middle class working and non-working Indonesian mothers: a qualitative study of the socio-economic and cultural environment.

The double-burden problem of malnutrition in many developing countries is occurring against a backdrop of complex changes in the socio-economic and cultural environment. One such change is the increasing rate of female employment, a change that has attracted researchers to explore the possible relationships between maternal employment and child nutritional status. The present study employs a qualitative approach to explore the socio-economic and cultural environments that may influence child-care practices in families of working and non-working mothers with children of different nutritional status and types of domestic caregiver. It was conducted in Depok, a satellite city of Jakarta, Indonesia, and was designed as a case study involving 26 middle class families. The children were categorized as underweight, normal weight and obese, and caregivers were grouped as family and domestic paid caregivers. Twenty-six mothers and 18 caregivers were interviewed. Data were analysed by the constant comparative approach. The study identified five emerging themes, consisting of reason for working and not working, support for mother and caregivers, decision maker on child food, maternal self-confidence and access to resources. It confirmed that mothers and caregivers need support and adequate resources to perform child-care practices regardless of the child nutritional and maternal working status. Further research is required into how Indonesian mothers across a range of socio-economic strata can have increased options for quality child-care arrangements and support with child feeding. Additionally, this paper discussed the importance of enhanced dissemination of health information addressing both child underweight and obesity problems.

Evidence-Based Nutrition Interventions Improved Adolescents' Knowledge and Behaviors in Indonesia.

Adolescence is a nutritionally vulnerable and critical life stage. However, few programs and policies focus on improving adolescent nutrition in Indonesia. To address this gap, we implemented a gender-responsive package of interventions: (1) breakfast and weekly iron-folic acid supplementation (WIFS), (2) a school-based nutrition education program, and (3) a social behavior change communication strategy. We surveyed 514 adolescents at baseline (2019) and endline (2020) in Klaten and Lombok Barat districts in Indonesia. The survey included a knowledge assessment on nutrition, as well as indicators of attitudes and behaviors on diet, physical activity, and WIFS. We employed multivariable linear and logistic regression to test for pre-post intervention differences. Overall knowledge was significantly higher post-intervention (ß: 3.3; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.6, 3.9). Diet diversity was high at both timepoints, however, at post-intervention there was significantly higher odds of consuming vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables (Odds Ratio [OR]: 1.5; 95% CI: 1.1, 2.0) and lower odds of consuming sugar-sweetened beverages (OR: 0.4; 95% CI: 0.3, 0.5). Post-intervention, there was higher odds of reporting 60 min of daily physical activity (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.7, 3.2) and WIFS among girls (OR: 6.7; 95% CI: 1.5, 30.9). The package of interventions may be a promising first step to improving adolescent nutrition in Indonesia.

The Association of Body Image Perception With Dietary and Physical Activity Behaviors Among Adolescents in Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Growing evidence highlights the linkage between body image, eating, and exercise behaviors among adolescents. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to determine the association between body image perception, nutritional status, and dietary and physical activity behaviors among adolescents in Indonesia. METHODS: A cross-sectional household survey was conducted among a representative sample (n = 2160) of adolescent girls and boys aged 12 to 18 years in Klaten and Lombok Barat districts. The association between adolescents' body image, their diets, and physical activity patterns was determined using complex samples Cox's regression analysis. Separate multivariate models were developed for adolescent girls and boys. RESULTS: Physical appearance was considered important to nearly all adolescents. Approximately 11% of girls and 14% of boys were overweight or obese, the majority of whom (∼70%) correctly perceived themselves as overweight or obese. More of overweight or obese adolescents felt unhappy about their perceived weight than their thin counterparts. With respect to the overweight/obese girls, the adolescents' perceptions of being overweight or obese was associated with a 63% reduction in the prevalence of overweight/obese girls consuming fatty snacks, such as deep-fried crackers (adjusted prevalence ratio (PR): 0.37, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.19-0.71) and a 40% reduction in the prevalence of overweight/obese girls engaging in moderate-intensity physical activity (adjusted PR: 0.60, 95% CI: 0.38-0.94), after adjusting for potential confounders. No association between body image and eating and physical activity behaviors was observed among adolescent boys. CONCLUSIONS: Body image may be one of the most important determinants of dietary and physical activity behaviors, and thus future efforts to foster healthy eating and physical activity behaviors among Indonesian adolescents need to address body image concerns.

Frequent Consumption of Micronutrient-Rich Foods Is Associated With Reduced Risk of Anemia Among Adolescent Girls and Boys in Indonesia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Anemia is a global public health concern. Its devastating consequences include impaired cognitive and motor development, reduced work productivity, and adverse birth outcomes, all of which apply to adolescents, as well as adults and children. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the determinants of anemia in Indonesian adolescent girls and boys from Klaten and Lombok Barat districts. METHODS: A total of 2150 adolescents who participated in a cross-sectional household survey were included in the analysis. The dietary intake of adolescents was assessed using a 7-day food frequency questionnaire. The relationship between anemia status, dietary intake, and other hypothesized determinants was assessed for adolescent girls and boys on a separate basis, using complex samples Cox regression analysis. Variables were selected for inclusion in multivariate models if they were significantly associated with the dependent variable in univariate models (P < .05). RESULTS: The prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls and boys was 19% and 5%, respectively. In multivariate analyses, frequent consumption of animal-based iron-rich foods was significantly associated with a lower risk of anemia (prevalence ratio [PR]: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.36-0.97) among adolescent girls, whereas a higher intake of vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables was associated with a reduced risk of anemia (PR: 0.41; 95% CI: 0.20-0.85) among adolescent boys, after adjustment for all potential confounders. CONCLUSIONS: Increased consumption of iron- and vitamin A-rich foods through the implementation of gender-responsive Social Behaviour Change Communication (SBCC) interventions is warranted. This should be coupled with improved coverage and quality of iron and folic acid supplementation programs in adolescents.

A Qualitative Inquiry into the Eating Behavior and Physical Activity of Adolescent Girls and Boys in Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Despite the rising double burden of malnutrition, adolescent nutrition has received little attention in Indonesia. Eating and physical activity behaviors established in adolescence are known to track into adulthood and may contribute to chronic diseases in later life. This study aimed to explore the eating behaviors and physical activity of Indonesian adolescents, and their influencing factors. METHODS: The study, designed as a qualitative study, was conducted in 2 selected districts in Indonesia: Klaten and Lombok Barat. Data were collected through immersion, open and informal discussions, and participant observations with 302 adolescent girls and boys. RESULTS: The eating and physical activity behaviors of adolescent boys and girls are influenced by contextual changes in their family lifestyles and environment. The adolescents in this study only conflate physical activity with participation in sport. Even when a wider view of physical activity is cast, their level of physical activity remains low, especially for adolescent girls. Adolescents and their families generally eat 3 meals a day, with schools an important source of food for adolescents. Adolescents skip breakfast at home, and breakfast and lunch are usually purchased and eaten at school. Fewer families cook and families rarely eat together due to increasingly busy lives, increased mobility, and digital connectivity. CONCLUSIONS: The rapid contextual shifts taking place in Indonesia influence the home, school, and peer environment to shape eating behaviors and physical activity among adolescent boys and girls. Gender-responsive multicomponent school-based interventions have the potential to serve as an important entry point for influencing adolescent nutrition.

Patterns and risk factors of double burden of malnutrition among adolescent girls and boys in Indonesia.

OBJECTIVES: As an emerging middle-income country, Indonesia is grappling with the double burden of malnutrition across all age groups, including adolescents. Slow gains in reducing undernutrition are compounded by rapidly increasing overnutrition. This study aims to determine the patterns and determinants of this double burden, particularly stunting, thinness and overweight, among adolescent girls and boys aged 12-18 years in Indonesia. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 2,160 girls and boys in the districts of Klaten and Lombok Barat in 2017. Data were collected on adolescents' nutritional status, sociodemographic characteristics, morbidity, dietary intake and physical activity and other relevant factors. Multivariable logistic regression models using generalized estimation equation were employed to determine risk factors for stunting, thinness and overweight. RESULTS: About a quarter of adolescent girls (25%) and boys (21%) were stunted. Approximately 5% of girls and 11% of boys were thin, whereas 11% girls and boys each were overweight. Living in a higher wealth household (OR = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.49-0.91), compared to a lower wealth household, and living in a district with higher socioeconomic status (OR = 0.63; 95% CI: 0.51-0.79) were associated with lower odds of being stunted. Adolescent education was also protective against stunting (OR = 0.52; 95% CI: 0.33-0.88). Older adolescents aged 15-18 years were more likely to be stunted (OR = 1.88; 95% CI: 1.42-2.46). Being a girl was associated with reduced odds of being thin (OR = 0.42; 95% CI: 0.30-0.58). Higher household wealth (OR = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.27-2.97) predicted being overweight, while maternal primary or some secondary education, compared to no or incomplete primary education, was protective against adolescent overweight (OR = 0.60; 95% CI: 0.40-0.90). CONCLUSION: Indonesian adolescent girls and boys face both extreme spectrums of malnutrition. Addressing the dual burden of malnutrition requires a multi-pronged approach, and urgent shift is warranted in nutrition policy and programmes targeting adolescents to effectively address the associated underlying determinants.

Strengthening Nutrition-Specific Policies for Adolescents in Indonesia: A Qualitative Policy Analysis.

BACKGROUND: There is a growing recognition of the importance of adolescent health and well-being. Yet, little attention has been paid to adolescent nutrition, and few policies and programs are targeting to improve adolescent nutrition in Indonesia. OBJECTIVE: This analysis aimed to identify (1) the extent to which adolescents are considered in nutrition policy in Indonesia and (2) opportunities to improve nutrition policy content to effectively target adolescents. METHODS: We collected data on policy content through a desk review of national and subnational level nutrition-specific strategic plans, laws, regulations, and program guidelines. We then conducted 74 key informant interviews with policy makers and program experts in health, education, and related sectors using semistructured interview guides based on policy theory to examine policy context and implementation. The policy content and interview data were analyzed using thematic synthesis and narrative analysis. RESULTS: Currently, 2 nutrition-specific policies and programs are designed to improve adolescent nutrition in Indonesia, one focusing on iron-folic acid supplementation for adolescent girls and another on obesity prevention and management in schools. These programs are yet to be implemented at scale. Overall, adolescent nutrition is not yet considered a priority in the national development agenda. An opportunity exists to improve action on adolescent nutrition in Indonesia through scaling up of district-level policies and through improving coordination mechanisms across sectors. CONCLUSIONS: Few policies and programs exist to support adolescent nutrition in Indonesia. Coordinated efforts across relevant sectors and levels of government should be made to mainstream adolescent nutrition into relevant policies.

Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Services in Public Health-Care Facilities in Indonesia: Adoption of World Health Organization/United Nations Children's Fund Service Ladders to National Data Sets for a Sustainable Development Goal Baseline Assessment.

Provision of basic water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in health-care facilities is gaining increased attention, given growing acceptance of its importance to the maternal and newborn quality of care agenda and the universal health coverage framework. Adopting and contextualizing an emerging World Health Organization/United Nations Children's Fund Joint Program Monitoring service ladder approach to national data collected in 2010/2011, we estimated the national coverage of primary health centers (PHCs) (N = 8,831), auxiliary PHCs (N = 22,853), village health posts (N = 28,692), and village maternity clinics (N = 14,396) with basic WASH services in Indonesia as part of a Sustainable Development Goal baseline assessment. One quarter of PHCs did not have access to a combination of basic water and sanitation (WatSan) services (23.6%) with significant regional variation (10.6-59.8%), whereas more than two-third of PHCs (72.0%) lacked handwashing facility with soap in all three locations (general consulting room, immunization room, and delivery room). More than a half of the three lower health service level facility types lacked basic WatSan services. National health facility monitoring systems need to be urgently strengthened for tracking the progress and addressing gaps in basic WASH services in health facilities in Indonesia.

Factors affecting breastfeeding intention and its continuation among urban mothers in West Jakarta: a follow-up qualitative study using critical point contact for breastfeeding.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Although breastfeeding is recommended by WHO, the breastfeeding rate in Indonesia remains low, because many women fail to maintain their breastfeeding intention during the breastfeeding period. The decision whether to breastfeed or not, like any other nutritional behaviour, may develop over a lifetime and is rooted in many aspects of life; however, many factors may affect a mother's decision about whether to stop or continue breastfeeding during the breastfeeding period. A critical time point of contact for breastfeeding is a time point when the mother experiences difficulties and encounters influences that may affect breastfeeding continuation. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: A qualitative approach was used to investigate the factors affecting breastfeeding intention and continuation. A follow-up approach was used to assess actual experiences and problems at each time point of contact. The interviewees in this study were pregnant women who lived and worked in West Jakarta and were in at least Week 36 of their pregnancy. The key interviewees for triangulation were 2 grandmothers and 2 healthcare providers. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge, beliefs, and support were the factors affecting the women's intentions. Perceived obstacles; common beliefs; stigmas regarding breastfeeding; and support and influences from husbands, mothers, family members, and relatives were the factors influencing breastfeeding continuation within the first month postpartum.

Profiles of eight working mothers who practiced exclusive breastfeeding in Depok, Indonesia.

Exclusive breastfeeding practice is generally low because of multifaceted factors internally within mothers themselves and also the surroundings. In addition, studies have consistently found that maternal employment outside the home is related to shorter duration of exclusive breastfeeding. With all these challenges, it is interesting that there are some mothers who manage to exclusively breastfeed their infants. Therefore, this report aims at exploring the characteristics of working mothers who are able to practice exclusive breastfeeding. The original study population was non-working and working mothers who have infants around 1 to 6 months old. The study design is an observational study with a mixed methods approach using a quantitative study (survey) and qualitative methods (in-depth interview) in sequential order. In addition, in-depth interviews with family members, midwives, supervisors at work, and community health workers were also included to accomplish a holistic picture of the situation. The study concludes that self-efficacy and confidence of the breastfeeding mothers characterize the practice of exclusive breastfeeding. Good knowledge that was acquired way before the mothers got pregnant suggests a predisposing factor to the current state of confidence. Home support from the father enhances the decision to sustain breastfeeding.

Psychosocial care and nutritional status of children aged 6-36 months among patrilineal (Karo) and matrilineal (Minangkabau) households in Jakarta.

A study on psychosocial care among Karo (patrilineal kinship) and Minangkabau (matrilineal kinship) households who lived in Jakarta, Indonesia was aimed at investigating psychosocial care practices of mothers and the relation of psychosocial care to the nutritional status of children aged 6-36 months as indicated by Weight-for-Age (WFA), Weight-for-Height (WFH), and Height-for-Age (HFA) Z-scores. The study was a cross sectional study. The tool used to assess the psychosocial care was the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) inventory scale for infants and toddlers. Psychosocial care of 52 respondents from Karo and 87 from Minangkabau were generally good. Out of the total 45 items of the six sub-scales HOME inventory, 1 item in sub-scale I (Emotional and verbal responsiveness), 4 items in sub-scale II (Acceptance of child's behavior), 1 item in sub-scale IV (Provision of play materials), 1 item in sub-scale V (Parental involvement with child), and 3 items in sub-scale VI (Opportunities for variety in daily stimulation) were statistically different between the two ethnic groups. More Minangkabau children were underweight and wasting compared to Karo children. Within the Karo group, well-nourished children in terms of WFA and WHA tended to have greater total HOME scores than their underweight and wasting counterparts. Among Minangkabau group, well-nourished children in terms of WFA, WHA, and HFA tended to have greater total HOME scores than their underweight, wasting, and stunting counterparts. The total HOME score of well-nourished Karo children in terms of WFA, WFH and HFA were greater than that of well-nourished Minangkabau children.