Analysis of the Molecular Dialogue Between Gray Mold (Botrytis cinerea) and Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) Reveals a Clear Shift in Defense Mechanisms During Berry Ripening.

Mature grapevine berries at the harvesting stage (MB) are very susceptible to the gray mold fungus Botrytis cinerea, while veraison berries (VB) are not. We conducted simultaneous microscopic and transcriptomic analyses of the pathogen and the host to investigate the infection process developed by B. cinerea on MB versus VB, and the plant defense mechanisms deployed to stop the fungus spreading. On the pathogen side, our genome-wide transcriptomic data revealed that B. cinerea genes upregulated during infection of MB are enriched in functional categories related to necrotrophy, such as degradation of the plant cell wall, proteolysis, membrane transport, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and detoxification. Quantitative-polymerase chain reaction on a set of representative genes related to virulence and microscopic observations further demonstrated that the infection is also initiated on VB but is stopped at the penetration stage. On the plant side, genome-wide transcriptomic analysis and metabolic data revealed a defense pathway switch during berry ripening. In response to B. cinerea inoculation, VB activated a burst of ROS, the salicylate-dependent defense pathway, the synthesis of the resveratrol phytoalexin, and cell-wall strengthening. On the contrary, in infected MB, the jasmonate-dependent pathway was activated, which did not stop the fungal necrotrophic process.

Population structure and temporal maintenance of the multihost fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea: causes and implications for disease management.

Understanding the causes of population subdivision is of fundamental importance, as studying barriers to gene flow between populations may reveal key aspects of the process of adaptive divergence and, for pathogens, may help forecasting disease emergence and implementing sound management strategies. Here, we investigated population subdivision in the multihost fungus Botrytis cinerea based on comprehensive multiyear sampling on different hosts in three French regions. Analyses revealed a weak association between population structure and geography, but a clear differentiation according to the host plant of origin. This was consistent with adaptation to hosts, but the distribution of inferred genetic clusters and the frequency of admixed individuals indicated a lack of strict host specificity. Differentiation between individuals collected in the greenhouse (on Solanum) and outdoor (on Vitis and Rubus) was stronger than that observed between individuals from the two outdoor hosts, probably reflecting an additional isolating effect associated with the cropping system. Three genetic clusters coexisted on Vitis but did not persist over time. Linkage disequilibrium analysis indicated that outdoor populations were regularly recombining, whereas clonality was predominant in the greenhouse. Our findings open up new perspectives for disease control by managing plant debris in outdoor conditions and reinforcing prophylactic measures indoor.

Environmental Conditions Affect Botrytis cinerea Infection of Mature Grape Berries More Than the Strain or Transposon Genotype.

Effects of environment, Botrytis cinerea strain, and their interaction on the infection of mature grape berries were investigated. The combined effect of temperature (T) of 15, 20, 25, and 30°C and relative humidity (RH) of 65, 80, 90, and 100% was studied by inoculating berries with mycelium plugs. Regardless of the T, no disease occurred at 65% RH, and both disease incidence and severity increased with increasing RH. The combined effect of T (5 to 30°C) and wetness duration (WD) of 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 h was studied by inoculating berries with conidia. At WD of 36 h, disease incidence was approximately 75% of affected berries at 20 or 25°C, 50% at 15°C, and 30 to 20% at 30 and 10°C; no infection occurred at 5°C. Under favorable conditions (100% RH or 36 h of WD) and unfavorable conditions (65% RH or 3 h of WD), berry wounding did not significantly affect disease incidence; under moderately favorable conditions (80% RH or 6 to 12 h of WD), disease incidence was approximately 1.5 to 5 times higher in wounded than in intact berries. Our data collectively showed that (i) T and RH or WD were more important than strain for mature berry infection by either mycelium or conidia and (ii) the effect of the environment on the different strains was similar. Two equations were developed describing the combined effect of T and RH, or T and WD, on disease incidence following inoculation by mycelium (R2=0.99) or conidia (R2=0.96), respectively. These equations may be useful in the development of models used to predict and control Botrytis bunch rot during berry ripening.

Oenological tannins to prevent Botrytis cinerea damage in grapes and musts: Kinetics and electrophoresis characterization of laccase.

Enzymatic parameters (KM and Vmax), residual activity, effect of bentonite and electrophoresis characterization of laccase in the presence of different oenological tannins (OT) were investigated in relation to B. cinerea negative effects in grapes and musts. Five OT were tested (gallotannin, ellagitannin, quebracho, grape-skin and grape-seed) in comparison with ascorbic acid (AA), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and bentonite. We added OT, AA, SO2 and bentonite to botrytized must obtained by inoculation of grapes with B. cinerea strain 213. Laccase activity was measured by the syringaldazine method at different concentrations of substrate. Enzymatic parameters were determined using Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk plots. The B. cinerea strain was also grown in a liquid medium for laccase production. Molecular weight of laccases and effect of OT upon these laccases were studied by SDS-PAGE. Results confirm that bentonite, contrary to OT, did not permit to reduce laccase activity. Regardless the tannin considered, Vmax, KM and laccase activity were reduced and gallotannin, grape-skin and grape-seed tannin presented the greatest ability. Efficiency of grape-seed tannin addition in order to reduce the laccase activity, was comparable to that of AA or SO2 at the typical doses employed in oenology for each one. Oenological tannins appear to be excellent processing aids to prevent laccase effects and contribute to reduce the use of SO2 in grapes and musts.

Microbial Antagonism Toward Botrytis Bunch Rot of Grapes in Multiple Field Tests Using One Bacillus ginsengihumi Strain and Formulated Biological Control Products.

Botrytis bunch rot (BBR), caused by the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea, is a major disease of wine and table grapes worldwide. Due to negative effects of pesticides on the environment and human health, alternative control strategies against BBR, such as biological control agents (BCAs), are required to produce high-quality grapes and wines with high standards of food safety. However, few biological control products against BBR are available, and their efficacy is sometimes variable. This study aimed to evaluate and compare (1) the efficacy of new bacterial BCA strains developed at INRA Bordeaux and (2) the BBR reductions achieved by commercial biocontrol products that are already registered or close to being registered. During three consecutive seasons, 10 field experiments were established in six different experimental vineyards in southwestern France. Spray applications were performed at key phenological stages (five or six during the season), or at high BBR-risk periods late in the season according to a Disease Risk Index model. At harvest, BBR incidence and severity (% of symptomatic berries per bunch) were visually determined. The experiments included four bacterial strains at an early experimental stage, particularly Bacillus ginsengihumi (S38). Nine commercial BCA products were also tested, including Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Aureobasidium pullulans, Ulocladium oudemansii, and Candida sake. Among the four experimental bacterial strains, only B. ginsengihumi S38 significantly controlled the BBR, presenting reductions in the average severity ranging from 35 to 60%, compared to untreated control, throughout the three seasons. Several commercial BCAs achieved significant reductions in BBR severity ranging from 21 to 58%, although not in every trial. The treatments that achieved higher reductions in severity rates were based on C. sake (45%), B. subtilis (54%), and B. amyloliquefaciens (58%). The efficacy of those BCAs was consistent throughout the studied seasons. The results confirmed the suitability of several biological control products under the conditions in vineyards in southwestern France, while also highlighting the good performance of the novel experimental BCA B. ginsengihumi S38 strain, which achieved similar control rates to the products registered for commercial use. The major factors involved in the variability in the results are also discussed.

Screening and modes of action of antagonistic bacteria to control the fungal pathogen Phaeomoniella chlamydospora involved in grapevine trunk diseases.

The antagonistic activity of 46 bacterial strains isolated from Bordeaux vineyards were evaluated against Phaeomoniella chlamydospora, a major grapevine pathogen involved in Esca. The reduction of the necrosis length of stem cuttings ranged between 31.4% and 38.7% for the 8 most efficient strains. Two in planta trials allowed the selection of the two best strains, Bacillus pumilus (S32) and Paenibacillus sp. (S19). Their efficacy was not dependent on application method; co-inoculation, prevention in the wood and soil inoculation were tested. The involvement of antibiosis by the secretion of diffusible and/or volatile compounds in the antagonistic capacity of these two strains was assessed in vitro. Volatile compounds secreted by B. pumilus (S32) and Paenibacillus sp. (S19) were identified by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS). The volatile compounds 1-octen-3-ol and 2,5-dimethyl pyrazine were obtained commercially and tested, and they showed strong antifungal activity against P. chlamydospora, which suggested that these compounds may play an important role in the bacterial antagonistic activity in planta. Furthermore, the expression of 10 major grapevine defense genes was quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction, which demonstrated that the two strains significantly affected the grapevine transcripts four days after their application on the plants. High expression levels of different genes associated with P. chlamydospora infection in B. pumilus pre-treated plants suggests that this strain induces systemic resistance in grapevine. For the first time, we demonstrated the ability of two bacterial strains, B. pumilus and Paenibacillus sp., isolated from grapevine wood, to control P. chlamydospora via direct and/or indirect mechanisms.