Aerosolization of viable Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli by tuberculosis clinic attendees independent of sputum-Xpert Ultra status.

Potential Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) transmission during different pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) disease states is poorly understood. We quantified viable aerosolized Mtb from TB clinic attendees following diagnosis and through six months' follow-up thereafter. Presumptive TB patients (n=102) were classified by laboratory, radiological, and clinical features into Group A: Sputum-Xpert Ultra-positive TB (n=52), Group B: Sputum-Xpert Ultra-negative TB (n=20), or Group C: TB undiagnosed (n=30). All groups were assessed for Mtb bioaerosol release at baseline, and subsequently at 2 wk, 2 mo, and 6 mo. Groups A and B were notified to the national TB program and received standard anti-TB chemotherapy; Mtb was isolated from 92% and 90% at presentation, 87% and 74% at 2 wk, 54% and 44% at 2 mo and 32% and 20% at 6 mo, respectively. Surprisingly, similar numbers were detected in Group C not initiating TB treatment: 93%, 70%, 48% and 22% at the same timepoints. A temporal association was observed between Mtb bioaerosol release and TB symptoms in all three groups. Persistence of Mtb bioaerosol positivity was observed in ~30% of participants irrespective of TB chemotherapy. Captured Mtb bacilli were predominantly acid-fast stain-negative and poorly culturable; however, three bioaerosol samples yielded sufficient biomass following culture for whole-genome sequencing, revealing two different Mtb lineages. Detection of viable aerosolized Mtb in clinic attendees, independent of TB diagnosis, suggests that unidentified Mtb transmitters might contribute a significant attributable proportion of community exposure. Additional longitudinal studies with sputum culture-positive and -negative control participants are required to investigate this possibility.

Capture and visualization of live Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli from tuberculosis patient bioaerosols.

Interrupting transmission is an attractive anti-tuberculosis (TB) strategy but it remains underexplored owing to our poor understanding of the events surrounding transfer of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) between hosts. Determining when live, infectious Mtb bacilli are released and by whom has proven especially challenging. Consequently, transmission chains are inferred only retrospectively, when new cases are diagnosed. This process, which relies on molecular analyses of Mtb isolates for epidemiological fingerprinting, is confounded by the prolonged infectious period of TB and the potential for transmission from transient exposures. We developed a Respiratory Aerosol Sampling Chamber (RASC) equipped with high-efficiency filtration and sampling technologies for liquid-capture of all particulate matter (including Mtb) released during respiration and non-induced cough. Combining the mycobacterial cell wall probe, DMN-trehalose, with fluorescence microscopy of RASC-captured bioaerosols, we detected and quantified putative live Mtb bacilli in bioaerosol samples arrayed in nanowell devices. The RASC enabled non-invasive capture and isolation of viable Mtb from bioaerosol within 24 hours of collection. A median 14 live Mtb bacilli (range 0-36) were isolated in single-cell format from 90% of confirmed TB patients following 60 minutes bioaerosol sampling. This represented a significant increase over previous estimates of transmission potential, implying that many more organisms might be released daily than commonly assumed. Moreover, variations in DMN-trehalose incorporation profiles suggested metabolic heterogeneity in aerosolized Mtb. Finally, preliminary analyses indicated the capacity for serial image capture and analysis of nanowell-arrayed bacilli for periods extending into weeks. These observations support the application of this technology to longstanding questions in TB transmission including the propensity for asymptomatic transmission, the impact of TB treatment on Mtb bioaerosol release, and the physiological state of aerosolized bacilli.

Aerosolization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Tidal Breathing.

Rationale: Interrupting tuberculosis (TB) transmission requires an improved understanding of how and when the causative organism, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is aerosolized. Although cough is commonly assumed to be the dominant source of Mtb aerosols, recent evidence of cough-independent Mtb release implies the contribution of alternative mechanisms. Objectives: To compare the aerosolization of Mtb bacilli and total particulate matter from patients with TB during three separate respiratory maneuvers: tidal breathing (TiBr), FVC, and cough. Methods: Bioaerosol sampling and Mtb enumeration by live-cell, fluorescence microscopy were combined with real-time measurement of CO2 concentration and total particle counts from 38 patients with GeneXpert-positive TB before treatment initiation. Measurements and Main Results: For all maneuvers, the proportions of particles detected across five size categories were similar, with most particles falling between 0.5-5 µm. Although total particle counts were 4.8-fold greater in cough samples than either TiBr or FVC, all three maneuvers returned similar rates of positivity for Mtb. No correlation was observed between total particle production and Mtb count. Instead, for total Mtb counts, the variability between individuals was greater than the variability between sampling maneuvers. Finally, when modelled using 24-hour breath and cough frequencies, our data indicate that TiBr might contribute more than 90% of the daily aerosolized Mtb among symptomatic patients with TB. Conclusions: Assuming the number of viable Mtb organisms released offers a reliable proxy of patient infectiousness, our observations imply that TiBr and interindividual variability in Mtb release might be significant contributors to TB transmission among active cases.

Synthesis and comparison of in vitro dual anti-infective activities of novel naphthoquinone hybrids and atovaquone.

A principal factor that contributes towards the failure to eradicate leishmaniasis and tuberculosis infections is the reduced efficacy of existing chemotherapies, owing to a continuous increase in multidrug-resistant strains of the causative pathogens. This accentuates the dire need to develop new and effective drugs against both plights. A series of naphthoquinone-triazole hybrids was synthesized and evaluated in vitro against Leishmania (L.) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains. Their cytotoxicities were also evaluated, using the human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK-293). The hybrids were found to be non-toxic towards human cells and had demonstrated micromolar cellular antileishmanial and antimycobacterial potencies. Hybrid 13, i.e. 2-{[1-(4-methylbenzyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl]methoxy}naphthalene-1,4-dione was the most active of all. It was found with MIC90 0.5 µM potency against Mtb in a protein free medium, and with half-maxima inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 0.81 µM and 1.48 µM against the infective promastigote parasites of L. donavani and L. major, respectively, with good selectivity towards these pathogens (SI 22 - 65). Comparatively, the clinical naphthoquinone, atovaquone, although less cytotoxic, was found to be two-fold less antimycobacterial potent, and six- to twelve-fold less active against leishmania. Hybrid 13 may therefore stand as a potential anti-infective hit for further development in the search for new antitubercular and antileishmanial drugs. Elucidation of its exact mechanism of action and molecular targets will constitute future endeavour.

Easy-To-Access Quinolone Derivatives Exhibiting Antibacterial and Anti-Parasitic Activities.

The cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) has a unique structural organisation, comprising a high lipid content mixed with polysaccharides. This makes cell wall a formidable barrier impermeable to hydrophilic agents. In addition, during host infection, Mtb resides in macrophages within avascular necrotic granulomas and cavities, which shield the bacterium from the action of most antibiotics. To overcome these protective barriers, a new class of anti-TB agents exhibiting lipophilic character have been recommended by various reports in literature. Herein, a series of lipophilic heterocyclic quinolone compounds was synthesised and evaluated in vitro against pMSp12::GFP strain of Mtb, two protozoan parasites (Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and against ESKAPE pathogens. The resultant compounds exhibited varied anti-Mtb activity with MIC90 values in the range of 0.24-31 µM. Cross-screening against P. falciparum and T.b. brucei, identified several compounds with antiprotozoal activities in the range of 0.4-20 µM. Compounds were generally inactive against ESKAPE pathogens, with only compounds 8c, 8g and 13 exhibiting moderate to poor activity against S. aureus and A. baumannii.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of bis-N2,N2'-(4-hydroxycoumarin-3-yl)ethylidene]-2,3-dihydroxysuccinodihydrazides.

A series of N2,N2'-bis[4-hydroxycoumarin-3-yl)ethylidene]-2,3-dihydroxysuccino-hydrazides, containing 4-hydroxycoumarin, hydrazine and tartaric acid moieties, have been prepared and examined for possible biological activity. Several of these compounds exhibit promising HIV-1 integrase inhibition (IC50 = 3.5 µM), and anti-T. brucei (32% viability) and anti-mycobacterial (Visual MIC90 = 15.63 µM) activity.

Single-step synthesis and in vitro anti-mycobacterial activity of novel nitrofurantoin analogues.

The emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) as well as the requirement for long, expensive and toxic drug regimens impede efforts to control and eliminate TB. Therefore, there's a need for effective and affordable anti-mycobacterial agents which can shorten the duration of therapy and are active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) in both active and latent phases. Nitrofurantoin (NFT) is a hypoxic agent with activity against a myriad of anaerobic pathogens and, like the first-line TB drug, rifampicin (RIF), kills non-replicating bacilli. However, the poor ability of NFT to cross host cell membranes and penetrate tissue means that it does not reach therapeutic concentrations. To improve TB efficacy of NFT, a series of NFT analogues was synthesized and evaluated in vitro for anti-mycobacterial activity against the laboratory strain, Mtb H37Rv, and for potential cytotoxicity using human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) and Chinese hamster ovarian (CHO) cells. The NFT analogues showed good safety profiles, enhanced anti-mycobacterial potency, improved lipophilicity, as well as reduced protein binding affinity. Analogue 9 which contains an eight carbon aliphatic chain was the most active, equipotent to isoniazid (INH), a major front-line agent, with MIC90 = 0.5 µM, 30-fold more potency than the parent drug, nitrofurantoin (MIC90 = 15 µM), and 100-fold more selective towards mycobacteria. Therefore, 9 was identified as a validated hit for further investigation in the urgent search for new, safe and affordable TB drugs.

In Vitro Efficacies, ADME, and Pharmacokinetic Properties of Phenoxazine Derivatives Active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, remains a leading infectious killer globally, demanding the urgent development of faster-acting drugs with novel mechanisms of action. Riminophenazines such as clofazimine are clinically efficacious against both drug-susceptible and drug-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis We determined the in vitro anti-M. tuberculosis activities, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion properties, and in vivo mouse pharmacokinetics of a series of structurally related phenoxazines. One of these, PhX1, displayed promising drug-like properties and potent in vitro efficacy, supporting its further investigation in an M. tuberculosis-infected animal model.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of 2-chloro-3-[(thiazol-2-yl)amino]-1,4-naphthoquinones.

A series of novel, substituted 2-chloro-3-[(thiazol-2-yl)amino]-1,4-naphthoquinones have been prepared and shown to exhibit promising concentration-dependent activity against human SH-SY5Y cells, Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and P. aeruginosa. Substituent effects on observed bioactivity have been explored; the para-fluorophenyl derivative 3d exhibited activity across the range of the bioassays employed, indicating the potential of the 2-chloro-3-[(4-arylthiazol-2-yl)amino]-1,4-naphthoquinone scaffold in the development of novel, broad spectrum therapeutics.

New Quinolone-Based Thiosemicarbazones Showing Activity Against Plasmodium falciparum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Co-infection of malaria and tuberculosis, although not thoroughly investigated, has been noted. With the increasing prevalence of tuberculosis in the African region, wherein malaria is endemic, it is intuitive to suggest that the probability of co-infection with these diseases is likely to increase. To avoid the issue of drug-drug interactions when managing co-infections, it is imperative to investigate new molecules with dual activities against the causal agents of these diseases. To this effect, a small library of quinolone-thiosemicarbazones was synthesised and evaluated in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causal agents of malaria and tuberculosis, respectively. The compounds were also evaluated against HeLa cells for overt cytotoxicity. Most compounds in this series exhibited activities against both organisms, with compound 10, emerging as the hit; with an MIC90 of 2 µM against H37Rv strain of M. tuberculosis and an IC50 of 1 µM against the 3D7 strain of P. falciparum. This study highlights quinolone-thiosemicarabazones as a class of compounds that can be exploited further in search of novel, safe agents with potent activities against both the causal agents of malaria and tuberculosis.

The Influence of HIV on the Evolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

HIV significantly affects the immunological environment during tuberculosis coinfection, and therefore may influence the selective landscape upon which M. tuberculosis evolves. To test this hypothesis whole genome sequences were determined for 169 South African M. tuberculosis strains from HIV-1 coinfected and uninfected individuals and analyzed using two Bayesian codon-model based selection analysis approaches: FUBAR which was used to detect persistent positive and negative selection (selection respectively favoring and disfavoring nonsynonymous substitutions); and MEDS which was used to detect episodic directional selection specifically favoring nonsynonymous substitutions within HIV-1 infected individuals. Among the 25,251 polymorphic codon sites analyzed, FUBAR revealed that 189-fold more were detectably evolving under persistent negative selection than were evolving under persistent positive selection. Three specific codon sites within the genes celA2b, katG, and cyp138 were identified by MEDS as displaying significant evidence of evolving under directional selection influenced by HIV-1 coinfection. All three genes encode proteins that may indirectly interact with human proteins that, in turn, interact functionally with HIV proteins. Unexpectedly, epitope encoding regions were enriched for sites displaying weak evidence of directional selection influenced by HIV-1. Although the low degree of genetic diversity observed in our M. tuberculosis data set means that these results should be interpreted carefully, the effects of HIV-1 on epitope evolution in M. tuberculosis may have implications for the design of M. tuberculosis vaccines that are intended for use in populations with high HIV-1 infection rates.

Cinnamoyl-Oxaborole Amides: Synthesis and Their in Vitro Biological Activity.

Due to the increased interest in their application in the treatment of infectious diseases, boron-containing compounds have received a significant coverage in the literature. Herein, a small set of novel cinnamoly-oxaborole amides were synthesized and screened against nagana Trypanosoma brucei brucei for antitrypanosomal activity. Compound 5g emerged as a new hit with an in vitro IC50 value of 0.086 µM against T. b. brucei without obvious inhibitory activity against HeLa cell lines. The same series was also screened against other human pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), for which moderate to weak activity (10 to >125 µM) was observed. Similarly, these compounds exhibited moderate activity against the human protozoal pathogen Trichomonas vaginalis with no observed effect on common microbiome bacterial species. The cross-species inhibitory activity presents the possibility of these compounds serving as broad-spectrum antibiotics for these prevalent three human pathogens.

Cytotoxic mediators in paradoxical HIV-tuberculosis immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome.

Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (TB-IRIS) frequently complicates combined antiretroviral therapy and antituberculosis therapy in HIV-1-coinfected tuberculosis patients. The immunopathological mechanisms underlying TB-IRIS are incompletely defined, and improved understanding is required to derive new treatments and to reduce associated morbidity and mortality. We performed longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses of human PBMCs from paradoxical TB-IRIS patients and non-IRIS controls (HIV-TB-coinfected patients commencing antiretroviral therapy who did not develop TB-IRIS). Freshly isolated PBMC stimulated with heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv (hkH37Rv) were used for IFN-γ ELISPOT and RNA extraction. Stored RNA was used for microarray and RT-PCR, whereas corresponding stored culture supernatants were used for ELISA. Stored PBMC were used for perforin and granzyme B ELISPOT and flow cytometry. There were significantly increased IFN-γ responses to hkH37Rv in TB-IRIS, compared with non-IRIS PBMC (p = 0.035). Microarray analysis of hkH37Rv-stimulated PBMC indicated that perforin 1 was the most significantly upregulated gene, with granzyme B among the top five (log2 fold difference 3.587 and 2.828, respectively), in TB-IRIS. Downstream experiments using RT-PCR, ELISA, and ELISPOT confirmed the increased expression and secretion of perforin and granzyme B. Moreover, granzyme B secretion reduced in PBMC from TB-IRIS patients during corticosteroid treatment. Invariant NKT cell (CD3(+)Vα24(+)) proportions were higher in TB-IRIS patients (p = 0.004) and were a source of perforin. Our data implicate the granule exocytosis pathway in TB-IRIS pathophysiology. Further understanding of the immunopathogenesis of this condition will facilitate development of specific diagnostic and improved therapeutic options.

Role of the interleukin 10 family of cytokines in patients with immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome associated with HIV infection and tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: The interleukin 10 (IL-10) family comprises cytokines structurally related to IL-10 that share signaling receptors that have conserved signaling cascades. The immunopathogenesis of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and tuberculosis remains incompletely understood. We hypothesized that a deficiency of IL-10 and its homologs may contribute to the immunopathology of IRIS in these patients. METHODS: We performed a case-control analysis involving patients with HIV infection and tuberculosis who had IRIS at clinical presentation (tuberculosis-IRIS) and similar patients with HIV infection and tuberculosis who did not develop tuberculosis-IRIS (non-IRIS). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were cultured in the presence or absence of heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis for 6 and 24 hours. Messenger RNA was analyzed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis. Cytokine concentrations in serum were also determined. RESULTS: Cultures of PBMCs stimulated with M. tuberculosis for 24 hours yielded higher IL-10 and interleukin 22 (IL-22) transcript levels for tuberculosis-IRIS patients, compared with non-IRIS patients. Analysis of corresponding serum samples showed significantly higher concentrations of IL-10 and IL-22 in tuberculosis-IRIS patients, compared with non-IRIS patients. CONCLUSIONS: IL-10 and IL-22 were differentially induced in PBMCs from tuberculosis-IRIS patients after in vitro stimulation, and higher concentrations of their corresponding proteins were detected in serum (in vivo). The higher levels of IL-10 observed in this study may represent a compensatory antiinflammatory response during tuberculosis-IRIS. The elevated levels of IL-22 suggest an association between this cytokine and immunopathology during tuberculosis-IRIS.

Persistent Mycobacterium tuberculosis bioaerosol release in a tuberculosis-endemic setting.

Pioneering studies linking symptomatic disease and cough-mediated Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) release established the infectious origin of tuberculosis (TB), simultaneously informing the notion that pathology is a prerequisite for Mtb transmission. Our recent work has challenged this assumption: by sampling TB clinic attendees, we detected equivalent release of Mtb-containing bioaerosols by confirmed TB patients and individuals not receiving a TB diagnosis and observed time-dependent reduction in Mtb bioaerosol positivity during 6-month follow-up of both cohorts, irrespective of anti-TB chemotherapy. Now, we report widespread Mtb release in our TB-endemic setting: of 89 randomly recruited community members, 79.8% (71/89) produced Mtb-containing bioaerosols independently of QuantiFERON status, a standard test for Mtb exposure. Moreover, during 2-month longitudinal sampling, only 2% (1/50) were serially Mtb bioaerosol negative. These results necessitate a reframing of the prevailing paradigm of Mtb transmission and TB etiology, perhaps explaining the historical inability to elucidate Mtb transmission networks in TB-endemic regions.

Persistent Mycobacterium tuberculosis bioaerosol release in a tuberculosis-endemic setting.

Pioneering studies linking symptomatic disease and cough-mediated release of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) established the infectious origin of tuberculosis (TB), simultaneously informing the pervasive notion that pathology is a prerequisite for Mtb transmission. Our prior work has challenged this assumption: by sampling TB clinic attendees, we detected equivalent release of Mtb-containing bioaerosols by confirmed TB patients and individuals not receiving a TB diagnosis, and we demonstrated a time-dependent reduction in Mtb bioaerosol positivity during six-months' follow-up, irrespective of anti-TB chemotherapy. Now, by extending bioaerosol sampling to a randomly selected community cohort, we show that Mtb release is common in a TB-endemic setting: of 89 participants, 79.8% (71/89) produced Mtb bioaerosols independently of QuantiFERON-TB Gold status, a standard test for Mtb infection; moreover, during two-months' longitudinal sampling, only 2% (1/50) were serially Mtb bioaerosol negative. These results necessitate a reframing of the prevailing paradigm of Mtb transmission and infection, and may explain the current inability to elucidate Mtb transmission networks in TB-endemic regions.

Corticosteroid-modulated immune activation in the tuberculosis immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome.

RATIONALE: HIV-tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (TB-IRIS) is an immunopathological reaction to mycobacterial antigens induced by antiretroviral therapy. Prednisone reduces morbidity in TB-IRIS, but the mechanisms are unclear. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of prednisone on the inflammatory response in TB-IRIS (antigen-specific effector T cells, cytokines, and chemokines). METHODS: Blood was taken from participants in a randomized placebo-controlled trial of prednisone for TB-IRIS, at 0, 2, and 4 weeks. Participants received prednisone at a dosage of 1.5 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks followed by 0.75 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks, or placebo at identical dosages. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Analyses included IFN-γ enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT), reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction on peripheral blood mononuclear cells after restimulation with heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Luminex multiplex cytokine analysis of corresponding tissue culture supernatants, and Luminex multiplex cytokine analysis of serum. Fifty-eight participants with TB-IRIS (31 receiving prednisone, 27 receiving placebo) were included. In serum, significant decreases in IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 p40, tumor necrosis factor-α, IFN-γ, and IFN-γ-induced protein-10 concentrations during prednisone, but not placebo, treatment were observed. No differences in ELISPOT responses comparing prednisone and placebo groups were shown in response to ESAT-6 (early secreted antigen target-6), Acr1, Acr2, 38-kD antigen, or heat-killed H37Rv M. tuberculosis. Purified protein derivative ELISPOT responses increased over 4 weeks in the prednisone group and decreased in the placebo group (P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: The beneficial effects of prednisone in TB-IRIS appear to be mediated via suppression of predominantly proinflammatory cytokine responses of innate immune origin, not via a reduction of the numbers of antigen-specific T cells in peripheral blood.

Environmental air sampling for detection and quantification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical settings: Proof of concept.

OBJECTIVE: Novel approaches are needed to understand and disrupt Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission. In this proof-of-concept study, we investigated the use of environmental air samplings to detect and quantify M. tuberculosis in different clinic settings in a high-burden area. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, environmental sampling. SETTING: Primary-care clinic. METHODS: A portable, high-flow dry filter unit (DFU) was used to draw air through polyester felt filters for 2 hours. Samples were collected in the waiting area and TB room of a primary care clinic. Controls included sterile filters placed directly into collection tubes at the DFU sampling site, and filter samplings performed outdoors. DNA was extracted from the filters, and droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) was used to quantify M. tuberculosis DNA copies. Carbon dioxide (CO2) data loggers captured CO2 concentrations in the sampled areas. RESULTS: The median sampling time was 123 minutes (interquartile range [IQR], 121-126). A median of 121 (IQR, 35-243) M. tuberculosis DNA copies were obtained from 74 clinic samplings, compared to a median of 3 (IQR, 1-33; P < .001) obtained from 47 controls. At a threshold of 320 DNA copies, specificity was 100%, and 18% of clinic samples would be classified as positive. CONCLUSIONS: This proof-of-concept study suggests that the potential for airborne M. tuberculosis detection based on M. tuberculosis DNA copy yield to enable the identification of high-risk transmission locations. Further optimization of the M. tuberculosis extraction technique and ddPCR data analysis would improve detection and enable robust interpretation of these data.

Hydrazone-Tethered 5-(Pyridin-4-yl)-4H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiol Hybrids: Synthesis, Characterisation, in silico ADME Studies, and in†vitro Antimycobacterial Evaluation and Cytotoxicity.

Compounds containing arylpyrrole-, 1,2,4-triazole- and hydrazone structural frameworks have been widely studied and demonstrated to exhibit a wide range of pharmacological properties. Herein, an exploratory series of new 1,2,4-triazole derivatives designed by amalgamation of arylpyrrole and 1,2,4-triazole structural units via a hydrazone linkage is reported. The synthesised compounds were tested in vitro for their potential activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) H37 Rv strain. The most promising compound 13 - the derivative without the benzene ring appended to the pyrrole unit displayed acceptable activity (MIC90 =3.99 µM) against MTB H37 Rv, while other compounds from the series exhibited modest to weak antimycobacterial activity with MIC90 values in the range between 7.0 and >125 µM. Furthermore, in silico results, predicated using the SwissADME web tool, show that the prepared compounds display desirable ADME profile with parameters within acceptable range.

Antiplasmodial and antimycobacterial activities of crude and lead-like enhanced extracts from Namibian medicinal plants.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Eight indigenous medicinal plants which are used traditionally for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB), malaria, and associated symptoms, were selected for this study. AIM OF STUDY: The aim of this study was to evaluate the antiplasmodial and antimycobacterial activities of the organic and aqueous crude extracts of different plant parts, by comparing the activities of subfractions (lead-like enhanced [LLE] extracts and methanol fractions) prepared from the bioactive crude extracts. MATERIALS & METHODS: Crude aqueous and organic extracts were prepared for 25 different plant parts obtained from eight plant species. In vitro antiplasmodial activity was evaluated using the parasite lactate dehydrogenase assay against chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum NF54 and in vitro antimycobacterial activity determined against the Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv-GFP strain in a standard broth microdilution assay. The bioactive crude extracts were subjected to solid phase extraction with Strata-X 33 µm reversed phase cartridges and eluted with 70:30 MeOH: H2O:1% trifluoroacetic acid to yield the LLE extract, followed by a methanol rinse, herein referred to as the MeOH fraction. Both fractions were evaluated for antiplasmodial and antimycobacterial activity. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR) and ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) profiling of the crude and active fractions of the phytochemically unexplored Sarcocaulon marlothii Engl. were performed to aid the identification of a potential antiplasmodial lead compound. RESULTS: Ten of the aqueous and organic crude extracts displayed antimycobacterial activity, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC90) values ranging from 9.9 to 86.8 µg/mL, and four crude extracts showed antiplasmodial activity with inhibitory concentration (IC50) values between 5.2 and 17.8 µg/mL. Although the stems of S. marlothii are traditionally used to treat TB and related symptoms, the two crude extracts displayed weak antimycobacterial activity (MIC90 > 100 µg/mL) while the crude organic extract displayed moderate antiplasmodial activity with an IC50 value of 8.8 µg/mL. None of the LLE extracts prepared from the ten antimycobacterial-active crudes displayed any significant activity (MIC90 > 125 µg/mL). In contrast, fractionation of three antiplasmodial-active, crude organic extracts yielded MeOH fractions which displayed a 2-fold to 19-fold increase in activity. The 1H-NMR profiles of the active MeOH fraction (IC50 4.3 µg/mL) of S. marlothii (organic, stem) revealed the likely presence of an unidentified trisubstituted cinnamic acid derivative as one of the major compounds and UPLC-MS/MS data provided additional evidence that the compound may be a hydroxycinnamic acid derivative. Unfortunately, owing to the paucity of the material obtained, we were unable to purify and unequivocally determine the structure of this active compound. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report on the phytochemical profiling of S. marlothii and, based on the antiplasmodial activity recorded, it merits an in-depth phytochemical analysis for the unequivocal characterization of a potential antiplasmodial lead compound. Results from this study lend support to the effectiveness of extract enrichment in combination with NMR fingerprinting for antiplasmodial lead identification.