Experimental verification of Advanced Collapsed-cone Engine for use with a multichannel vaginal cylinder applicator.

Model-based dose calculation algorithms have recently been incorporated into brachytherapy treatment planning systems, and their introduction requires critical evaluation before clinical implementation. Here, we present an experimental evaluation of Oncentra® Brachy Advanced Collapsed-cone Engine (ACE) for a multichannel vaginal cylinder (MCVC) applicator using radiochromic film. A uniform dose of 500 cGy was specified to the surface of the MCVC using the TG-43 dose formalism under two conditions: (a) with only the central channel loaded or (b) only the peripheral channels loaded. Film measurements were made at the applicator surface and compared to the doses calculated using TG-43, standard accuracy ACE (sACE), and high accuracy ACE (hACE). When the central channel of the applicator was used, the film measurements showed a dose increase of (11 ± 8)% (k = 2) above the two outer grooves on the applicator surface. This increase in dose was confirmed with the hACE calculations, but was not confirmed with the sACE calculations at the applicator surface. When the peripheral channels were used, a periodic azimuthal variation in measured dose was observed around the applicator. The sACE and hACE calculations confirmed this variation and agreed within 1% of each other at the applicator surface. Additionally for the film measurements with the central channel used, a baseline dose variation of (10 ± 4)% (k = 2) of the mean dose was observed azimuthally around the applicator surface, which can be explained by offset source positioning in the central channel.

Prostate size, source configuration, and dosimetry dynamics of stranded 125I seed implants.

PURPOSE: To quantify changes in prostate size and seed movement over time after transperineal implantation of stranded 125I seeds, and to determine their impact on prostate dosimetry. METHODS: CT and MR (T2, balanced steady-state free precession) image triplets were acquired on days 0, 3, 10, and 30 for a cohort of 20 patients and registered automatically. Prostate contours were drawn on MR-T2 images; seeds were found and matched in successive CT images. Prostate volume and dimensions, seed movements, and prostate dose metrics V200, V150, V100 and D90 were calculated, and their dynamic behaviors quantified in an operationally defined prostate coordinate system. RESULTS: Cohort-averaged reductions in prostate A-P dimension (∼8%) and L-R dimension (∼5%) inferred from seed movements agreed with those obtained from contour measurements, whereas prostate volume and S-I dimension (implant direction) reductions inferred from seed movements were overestimated by about 30%. Average overall seed movement was 4.8 ± 3.0 mm, of which the only identifiable systematic component was resolution of prostate edema. Cohort-averaged ratios of prostate V200, V150, V100, and D90 on day 30 relative to day 0 were 1.67, 1.33, 1.02, and 1.08, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Postimplant prostate size reduction in the SI (implant) direction cannot reliably be inferred from stranded seed movements. Apart from large-scale migration, residual seed movements relative to the prostate after accounting for edema resolution appear to be random. Prostate V100 and D90 changes 30 days post implant are modest, whereas those for V150 and V200 are substantial.

Generation and comparison of 3D dosimetric reference datasets for COMS eye plaque brachytherapy using model-based dose calculations.

PURPOSE: A joint Working Group of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM), the European Society for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO), and the Australasian Brachytherapy Group (ABG) was created to aid in the transition from the AAPM TG-43 dose calculation formalism, the current standard, to model-based dose calculations. This work establishes the first test cases for low-energy photon-emitting brachytherapy using model-based dose calculation algorithms (MBDCAs). ACQUISITION AND VALIDATION METHODS: Five test cases are developed: (1) a single model 6711 125 I brachytherapy seed in water, 13 seeds (2) individually and (3) in combination in water, (4) the full Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study (COMS) 16 mm eye plaque in water, and (5) the full plaque in a realistic eye phantom. Calculations are done with four Monte Carlo (MC) codes and a research version of a commercial treatment planning system (TPS). For all test cases, local agreement of MC codes was within ∼2.5% and global agreement was ∼2% (4% for test case 5). MC agreement was within expected uncertainties. Local agreement of TPS with MC was within 5% for test case 1 and ∼20% for test cases 4 and 5, and global agreement was within 0.4% for test case 1 and 10% for test cases 4 and 5. DATA FORMAT AND USAGE NOTES: Dose distributions for each set of MC and TPS calculations are available online (https://doi.org/10.52519/00005) along with input files and all other information necessary to repeat the calculations. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS: These data can be used to support commissioning of MBDCAs for low-energy brachytherapy as recommended by TGs 186 and 221 and AAPM Report 372. This work additionally lays out a sample framework for the development of test cases that can be extended to other applications beyond eye plaque brachytherapy.

AAPM WGDCAB Report 372: A joint AAPM, ESTRO, ABG, and ABS report on commissioning of model-based dose calculation algorithms in brachytherapy.

The introduction of model-based dose calculation algorithms (MBDCAs) in brachytherapy provides an opportunity for a more accurate dose calculation and opens the possibility for novel, innovative treatment modalities. The joint AAPM, ESTRO, and ABG Task Group 186 (TG-186) report provided guidance to early adopters. However, the commissioning aspect of these algorithms was described only in general terms with no quantitative goals. This report, from the Working Group on Model-Based Dose Calculation Algorithms in Brachytherapy, introduced a field-tested approach to MBDCA commissioning. It is based on a set of well-characterized test cases for which reference Monte Carlo (MC) and vendor-specific MBDCA dose distributions are available in a Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine-Radiotherapy (DICOM-RT) format to the clinical users. The key elements of the TG-186 commissioning workflow are now described in detail, and quantitative goals are provided. This approach leverages the well-known Brachytherapy Source Registry jointly managed by the AAPM and the Imaging and Radiation Oncology Core (IROC) Houston Quality Assurance Center (with associated links at ESTRO) to provide open access to test cases as well as step-by-step user guides. While the current report is limited to the two most widely commercially available MBDCAs and only for 192 Ir-based afterloading brachytherapy at this time, this report establishes a general framework that can easily be extended to other brachytherapy MBDCAs and brachytherapy sources. The AAPM, ESTRO, ABG, and ABS recommend that clinical medical physicists implement the workflow presented in this report to validate both the basic and the advanced dose calculation features of their commercial MBDCAs. Recommendations are also given to vendors to integrate advanced analysis tools into their brachytherapy treatment planning system to facilitate extensive dose comparisons. The use of the test cases for research and educational purposes is further encouraged.

Dose calculation for photon-emitting brachytherapy sources with average energy higher than 50 keV: report of the AAPM and ESTRO.

PURPOSE: Recommendations of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) and the European Society for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO) on dose calculations for high-energy (average energy higher than 50 keV) photon-emitting brachytherapy sources are presented, including the physical characteristics of specific (192)Ir, (137)Cs, and (60)Co source models. METHODS: This report has been prepared by the High Energy Brachytherapy Source Dosimetry (HEBD) Working Group. This report includes considerations in the application of the TG-43U1 formalism to high-energy photon-emitting sources with particular attention to phantom size effects, interpolation accuracy dependence on dose calculation grid size, and dosimetry parameter dependence on source active length. RESULTS: Consensus datasets for commercially available high-energy photon sources are provided, along with recommended methods for evaluating these datasets. Recommendations on dosimetry characterization methods, mainly using experimental procedures and Monte Carlo, are established and discussed. Also included are methodological recommendations on detector choice, detector energy response characterization and phantom materials, and measurement specification methodology. Uncertainty analyses are discussed and recommendations for high-energy sources without consensus datasets are given. CONCLUSIONS: Recommended consensus datasets for high-energy sources have been derived for sources that were commercially available as of January 2010. Data are presented according to the AAPM TG-43U1 formalism, with modified interpolation and extrapolation techniques of the AAPM TG-43U1S1 report for the 2D anisotropy function and radial dose function.

Dose calculation for permanent prostate implants incorporating spatially anisotropic linearly time-resolving edema.

PURPOSE: The objectives of this study were (i) to develop a dose calculation method for permanent prostate implants that incorporates a clinically motivated model for edema and (ii) to illustrate the use of the method by calculating the preimplant dosimetry error for a reference configuration of 125I, 103Pd, and 137Cs seeds subject to edema-induced motions corresponding to a variety of model parameters. METHODS: A model for spatially anisotropic edema that resolves linearly with time was developed based on serial magnetic resonance imaging measurements made previously at our center to characterize the edema for a group of n = 40 prostate implant patients [R. S. Sloboda et al., "Time course of prostatic edema post permanent seed implant determined by magnetic resonance imaging," Brachytherapy 9, 354-361 (2010)]. Model parameters consisted of edema magnitude, delta, and period, T. The TG-43 dose calculation formalism for a point source was extended to incorporate the edema model, thus enabling calculation via numerical integration of the cumulative dose around an individual seed in the presence of edema. Using an even power piecewise-continuous polynomial representation for the radial dose function, the cumulative dose was also expressed in closed analytical form. Application of the method was illustrated by calculating the preimplant dosimetry error, RE(preplan), in a 5 x 5 x 5 cm3 volume for 125I (Oncura 6711), 103Pd (Theragenics 200), and 131Cs (IsoRay CS-1) seeds arranged in the Radiological Physics Center test case 2 configuration for a range of edema relative magnitudes (delta = [0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 1.0]) and periods (T = [28, 56, 84] d). Results were compared to preimplant dosimetry errors calculated using a variation of the isotropic edema model developed by Chen et al. ["Dosimetric effects of edema in permanent prostate seed implants: A rigorous solution," Int. J. Radiat. Oncol., Biol., Phys. 47, 1405-1419 (2000)]. RESULTS: As expected, RE(preplan) for our edema model indicated underdosage in the calculation volume with a clear dependence on seed and calculation point positions, and increased with increasing values of delta and T. Values of RE(preplan) were generally larger near the ends of the virtual prostate in the RPC phantom compared with more central locations. For edema characteristics similar to the population average values previously measured at our center, i.e., delta = 0.2 and T = 28 d, mean values of RE(preplan) in an axial plane located 1.5 cm from the center of the seed distribution were 8.3% for 131Cs seeds, 7.5% for 103Pd seeds, and 2.2% for 125I seeds. Maximum values of RE(preplan) in the same plane were about 1.5 times greater. Note that detailed results strictly apply only for loose seed implants where the seeds are fixed in tissue and move in synchrony with that tissue. CONCLUSIONS: A dose calculation method for permanent prostate implants incorporating spatially anisotropic linearly time-resolving edema was developed for which cumulative dose can be written in closed form. The method yields values for RE(preplan) that differ from those for spatially isotropic edema. The method is suitable for calculating pre- and postimplant dosimetry correction factors for clinical seed configurations when edema characteristics can be measured or estimated.

Robotic Ultrasound Scanning With Real-Time Image-Based Force Adjustment: Quick Response for Enabling Physical Distancing During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

During an ultrasound (US) scan, the sonographer is in close contact with the patient, which puts them at risk of COVID-19 transmission. In this paper, we propose a robot-assisted system that automatically scans tissue, increasing sonographer/patient distance and decreasing contact duration between them. This method is developed as a quick response to the COVID-19 pandemic. It considers the preferences of the sonographers in terms of how US scanning is done and can be trained quickly for different applications. Our proposed system automatically scans the tissue using a dexterous robot arm that holds US probe. The system assesses the quality of the acquired US images in real-time. This US image feedback will be used to automatically adjust the US probe contact force based on the quality of the image frame. The quality assessment algorithm is based on three US image features: correlation, compression and noise characteristics. These US image features are input to the SVM classifier, and the robot arm will adjust the US scanning force based on the SVM output. The proposed system enables the sonographer to maintain a distance from the patient because the sonographer does not have to be holding the probe and pressing against the patient's body for any prolonged time. The SVM was trained using bovine and porcine biological tissue, the system was then tested experimentally on plastisol phantom tissue. The result of the experiments shows us that our proposed quality assessment algorithm successfully maintains US image quality and is fast enough for use in a robotic control loop.

Intraoperative optimization of seed implantation plan in breast brachytherapy.

PURPOSE: Low-dose-rate permanent-seed (LDR-PS) brachytherapy has shown a great potential for treating breast cancer. An implantation scheme indicating the template pose and needle trajectories is determined before the operation. However, when performing the pre-planned scheme intraoperatively, a change of the patient's posture will cause seed placements away from the desired locations. Hence, the implantation scheme should update based on the current patient's posture. METHODS: A numerical method of optimizing the implantation scheme for the LDR-PS breast brachytherapy is presented here. The proposed algorithm determines the fewest needle trajectories and template poses for delivering the seeds to the intraoperative desired locations. The clinical demand, such as the minimum distance between the chest wall and the needle, is considered in the optimization process. RESULTS: The method was simulated for a given LDR-PS brachytherapy procedure to evaluate the optimal scheme as the number of the template poses changing. The optimization parameters of the needles' number and the implantation errors are used to adjust the algorithm outcome. The results show that the implantation schemes obtained by our method have a satisfactory accuracy in the cases of 2 or 3 template poses. The computation time is about 76s to 150s according to the number of the template poses from 1 to 3. CONCLUSION: The proposed method can find the optimal implantation scheme corresponding to the current desired seed locations immediately once there is a change of patient's posture. This work can be applied to the robot-assisted LDR-PS breast brachytherapy for improving the operation accuracy and efficiency.

A mixed-integer linear programming optimization model framework for capturing expert planning style in low dose rate prostate brachytherapy.

Low dose rate (LDR) brachytherapy is a minimally invasive form of radiation therapy, used to treat prostate cancer, and it involves permanent implantation of radioactive sources (seeds) inside of the prostate gland. Treatment planning in brachytherapy involves a decision making process for the placement of the sources in order to deliver an effective dose of radiation to cancerous tissue in the prostate while sparing the surrounding healthy tissue. Such a decision making process can be modeled as a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) problem. In this paper, we introduce a novel MILP optimization model framework for interstitial LDR prostate brachytherapy designed to explicitly mimic the qualities of treatment plans produced manually by expert planners. Our approach involves incorporating a unique set of clinically important constraints, called spatial constraints, into the optimization model. Computational results for an initial model reflecting clinical practice at our cancer center show that the treatment plans produced largely capture the spatial and dosimetric characteristics of manual plans created by expert planners.

Delivered dose changes in COMS plaque-based ocular brachytherapy arising from vitrectomy with silicone oil replacement.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to determine dosimetric effects of performing concurrent I-125 Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study plaque brachytherapy and vitrectomy with replacement using silicone oil, previously shown to be a means of shielding uninvolved parts of the eye. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Monte Carlo simulations using MCNP6 were performed to compare the dosimetry with all eye materials assigned as water, and for the vitreous (excluding the tumor), composed of polydimethylsiloxane oil for three generic, one large tumor, and two patient geometry scenarios. Dose was scored at the tumor apex, along the sclera, and within a 3D grid encompassing the eye. The assessed patient cases included vitrectomies to treat intraocular pathologies; not to enhance attenuation/shielding. RESULTS: The doses along the sclera and for the entire eye were decreased when the silicone oil replaced the vitreal fluid, with a maximum decrease at the opposite sclera of 63%. Yet, absolute changes in dose to critical structures were often small and likely not clinically significant. The dose at the tumor apex was decreased by 3.1-9.4%. Dose was also decreased at the edges of the tumor because of decreased backscatter at the tumor-oil interface. CONCLUSIONS: Concurrent silicone vitrectomy was found to reduce total radiation dose to the eye. Based on current radiation retinopathy predictive models, the evaluation of the absolute doses revealed only a subset of patients in which a clinically significant difference in outcomes is expected. Furthermore, the presence of the silicone oil decreased dose to the tumor edges, indicating that the tumor could be underdosed if the oil is unaccounted for.

Transit dose contributions to intracavitary and interstitial PDR brachytherapy treatments.

The objective of this study was to determine the magnitude of transit dose contributions to the planned dose in common intracavitary and interstitial brachytherapy treatments delivered using a pulsed dose rate (PDR) remote afterloader. The total transit dose arises from the travel of the radiation source into (entry) and out of (exit) the applicator, and between the dwell positions (inter-dwell). In this paper, we used a well-type ionization chamber to measure the transit dose component for a PDR afterloader and compared the results against measurements for a high dose rate (HDR) afterloader. Our results show that for typical intracavitary and interstitial treatments, the major contribution to transit dose is from the entry+exit source travel, as the inter-dwell component is effectively compensated for (<0.5%) by the afterloader. The transit dose was generally found to be larger for PDR treatments than for HDR treatments, as it is influenced by the source activity, dwell times and number of radiation pulses. The overall increase in the planned dose contributed by the transit dose in a typical intracavitary PDR treatment was estimated to be <2%, but much higher for interstitial treatments. This study shows that the effect of the transit dose on common clinical intracavitary PDR brachytherapy treatments is practically negligible, but requires attention in highly fractionated large volume interstitial treatments.

Robotic-Assisted Needle Steering Around Anatomical Obstacles Using Notched Steerable Needles.

Robotic-assisted needle steering can enhance the accuracy of needle-based interventions. Application of current needle steering techniques are restricted by the limited deflection curvature of needles. Here, a novel steerable needle with improved curvature is developed and used with an online motion planner to steer the needle along curved paths inside tissue. The needle is developed by carving series of small notches on the shaft of a standard needle. The notches decrease the needle flexural stiffness, allowing the needle to follow tightly curved paths with small radius of curvature. In this paper, first, a finite element model of the notched needle deflection in tissue is presented. Next, the model is used to estimate the optimal location for the notches on needle's shaft for achieving a desired curvature. Finally, an ultrasound-guided motion planner for needle steering inside tissue is developed and used to demonstrate the capability of the notched needle in achieving high curvature and maneuvering around obstacles in tissue. We simulated a clinical scenario in brachytherapy, where the target is obstructed by the pubic bone and cannot be reached using regular needles. Experimental results show that the target can be reached using the notched needle with a mean accuracy of 1.2 mm. Thus, the proposed needle enables future research on needle steering toward deeper or more difficult-to-reach targets.

Experimental assessment of the Advanced Collapsed-cone Engine for scalp brachytherapy treatments.

PURPOSE: To experimentally assess the performance of the Advanced Collapsed-cone Engine (ACE) for 192Ir high-dose-rate brachytherapy treatment planning of nonmelanoma skin cancers of the scalp. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A layered slab phantom was designed to model the head (skin, skull, and brain) and surface treatment mold using tissue equivalent materials. Six variations of the phantom were created by varying skin thickness, skull thickness, and size of air gap between the mold and skin. Treatment planning was initially performed using the Task Group 43 (TG-43) formalism with CT images of each phantom variation. Doses were recalculated using standard and high accuracy modes of ACE. The plans were delivered to Gafchromic EBT3 film placed between different layers of the phantom. RESULTS: Doses calculated by TG-43 and ACE and those measured by film agreed with each other at most locations within the phantoms. For a given phantom variation, average TG-43- and ACE-calculated doses were similar, with a maximum difference of (3 ± 12)% (k = 2). Compared to the film measurements, TG-43 and ACE overestimated the film-measured dose by (13 ± 12)% (k = 2) for one phantom variation below the skull layer. CONCLUSIONS: TG-43- and ACE-calculated and film-measured doses were found to agree above the skull layer of the phantom, which is where the tumor would be located in a clinical case. ACE appears to underestimate the attenuation through bone relative to that measured by film; however, the dose to bone is below tolerance levels for this treatment.

Initial evaluation of Advanced Collapsed cone Engine dose calculations in water medium for I-125 seeds and COMS eye plaques.

PURPOSE: To investigate the dose calculation accuracy in water medium of the Advanced Collapsed cone Engine (ACE) for three sizes of COMS eye plaques loaded with low-energy I-125 seeds. METHODS: A model of the Oncura 6711 I-125 seed was created for use with ACE in Oncentra® Brachy (OcB) using primary-scatter separated (PSS) point dose kernel and Task Group (TG) 43 datasets. COMS eye plaque models of diameters 12, 16, and 20 mm were introduced into the OcB applicator library based on 3D CAD drawings of the plaques and Silastic inserts. To perform TG-186 level 1 commissioning, treatment plans were created in OcB for a single source in water and for each COMS plaque in water for two scenarios: with only one centrally loaded seed, or with all seed positions loaded. ACE dose calculations were performed in high accuracy mode with a 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 mm3 calculation grid. The resulting dose data were evaluated against Monte Carlo (MC) calculated doses obtained with MCNP6, using both local and global percent differences. RESULTS: ACE doses around the source for the single seed in water agreed with MC doses on average within < 5% inside a 6 × 6 × 6 cm3 region, and within < 1.5% inside a 2 × 2 × 2 cm3 region. The PSS data were generated at a higher resolution within 2 cm from the source, resulting in this improved agreement closer to the source due to fewer approximations in the ACE dose calculation. Average differences in both investigated plaque loading patterns in front of the plaques and on the plaque central axes were ≤ 2.5%, though larger differences (up to 12%) were found near the plaque lip. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, good agreement was found between ACE and MC dose calculations for a single I-125 seed and in front of the COMS plaques in water. More complex scenarios need to be investigated to determine how well ACE handles heterogeneous patient materials.

Advanced Collapsed cone Engine dose calculations in tissue media for COMS eye plaques loaded with I-125 seeds.

PURPOSE: To investigate the dose calculation accuracy of the Advanced Collapsed cone Engine (ACE) algorithm for ocular brachytherapy using a COMS plaque loaded with I-125 seeds for two heterogeneous patient tissue scenarios. METHODS: The Oncura model 6711 I-125 seed and 16 mm COMS plaque were added to a research version (v4.6) of the Oncentra® Brachy (OcB) treatment planning system (TPS) for dose calculations using ACE. Treatment plans were created for two heterogeneous cases: (a) a voxelized eye phantom comprising realistic eye materials and densities and (b) a patient CT dataset with variable densities throughout the dataset. ACE dose calculations were performed using a high accuracy mode, high-resolution calculation grid matching the imported CT datasets (0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 mm3 ), and a user-defined CT calibration curve. The accuracy of ACE was evaluated by replicating the plan geometries and comparing to Monte Carlo (MC) calculated doses obtained using MCNP6. The effects of the heterogeneous patient tissues on the dose distributions were also evaluated by performing the ACE and MCNP6 calculations for the same scenarios but setting all tissues and air to water. RESULTS: Average local percent dose differences between ACE and MC within contoured structures and at points of interest for both scenarios ranged from 1.2% to 20.9%, and along the plaque central axis (CAX) from 0.7% to 7.8%. The largest differences occurred in the plaque penumbra (up to 17%), and at contoured structure interfaces (up to 20%). Other regions in the eye agreed more closely, within the uncertainties of ACE dose calculations (~5%). Compared to that, dose differences between water-based and fully heterogeneous tissue simulations were up to 27%. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, ACE dosimetry agreed well with MC in the tumor volume and along the plaque CAX for the two heterogeneous tissue scenarios, indicating that ACE could potentially be used for clinical ocular brachytherapy dosimetry. In general, ACE data matched the fully heterogeneous MC data more closely than water-based data, even in regions where the ACE accuracy was relatively low. However, depending on the plaque position, doses to critical structures near the plaque penumbra or at tissue interfaces were less accurate, indicating that improvements may be necessary. More extensive knowledge of eye tissue compositions is still required.

Initial clinical assessment of "center-specific" automated treatment plans for low-dose-rate prostate brachytherapy.

PURPOSE: To report results of an initial pilot study assessing iodine-125 prostate implant treatment plans created automatically by a new seed-placement method. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A novel mixed-integer linear programming method incorporating spatial constraints on seed locations in addition to standard dose-volume constraints was used to place seeds. The approach, described in detail elsewhere, was used to create treatment plans fully automatically on a retrospective basis for 20 patients having a wide range of prostate sizes and shapes. Corresponding manual plans used for patient treatment at a single institution were combined with the automated plans, and all 40 plans were anonymized, randomized, and independently evaluated by five clinicians using a common scoring tool. Numerical and clinical features of the plans were extracted for comparison purposes. RESULTS: A full 51% of the automated plans were deemed clinically acceptable without any modification by the five practitioners collectively versus 90% of the manual plans. Automated plan seed distributions were for the most part not substantially different from those for the manual plans. Two observed shortcomings of the automated plans were seed strands not intersecting the prostate and strands extending into the bladder. Both are amenable to remediation by adjusting existing spatial constraints. CONCLUSIONS: After spatial and dose-volume constraints are set, the mixed-integer linear programming method is capable of creating prostate implant treatment plans fully automatically, with clinical acceptability sufficient to warrant further investigation. These plans, intended to be reviewed and refined as necessary by an expert planner, have the potential to both save planner time and enhance treatment plan consistency.

Brachytherapy scatter dose calculation in heterogeneous media: I. A microbeam ray-tracing method for the single-scatter contribution.

In this work, we propose a framework for calculating brachytherapy dose distributions in heterogeneous media. The approach taken includes analytical calculation of the primary dose, and separately treats contributions of the once-scatter photons and multiple-scatter photons to the total scatter dose. This paper focuses on the evaluation of the once-scatter dose, which is based on a micro-beam ray-tracing model developed by the authors that incorporates an accurate description of the physical scattering of photons (Compton and Rayleigh scattering) with considerable flexibility in accommodating diverse geometries in a heterogeneous medium. The accuracy of the ray-tracing model has been verified by comparing model-calculated once-scatter doses with corresponding Monte Carlo results. For a 22 keV, 27 keV and 300 keV point source in water containing a disc-shaped heterogeneity of whitlockite, stainless steel or lead, our calculated results for once-scatter doses are in excellent agreement with corresponding Monte Carlo results over a wide range of heterogeneity dimensions and positions. Our investigation also explores the differences between physical scattering and isotropic scattering in evaluating the once-scatter dose, and thus enables the domain of applicability of the latter to be assessed. An appropriate method for evaluating the multiple-scatter dose, which together with the micro-beam method described here provides a means to calculate the total dose, is the subject of a companion paper.

Brachytherapy scatter dose calculation in heterogeneous media: II. Empirical formulation for the multiple-scatter contribution.

The presence of heterogeneous media can produce significant perturbations of dose distribution in brachytherapy. In a companion paper, we proposed a dose decomposition approach for dose calculation in a heterogeneous medium, which separately treats dose contributions from primary, once-scattered and multiple-scattered photons. The companion paper also describes and verifies a micro-beam ray-tracing method for evaluating the once-scatter dose. This paper deals with the calculation of the multiple-scatter dose. We present two empirical formulations for evaluating the heterogeneity correction factor for a 27 keV point source in a water sphere containing a disc-shaped heterogeneity. The empirical formulations are based on nonlinear curve fitting of the Monte Carlo multiple-scatter dose estimates calculated for the heterogeneous system. Extensive benchmark comparisons show that these formulations provide results for the multiple-scatter dose that agree within 10% (and mostly within 5%) with corresponding Monte Carlo dose estimates. Combining them with the algorithms for primary and once-scatter dose calculation described in the companion paper yields results for the total dose of equivalent accuracy. The empirical formulations are expressed in simple mathematical forms which involve a separation of the geometry and position variables of the heterogeneous system. Such representation provides a good tool to investigate the heterogeneity-induced perturbation of a multiple-scatter dose at low photon energy.

Semi-Automated Needle Steering in Biological Tissue Using an Ultrasound-Based Deflection Predictor.

The performance of needle-based interventions depends on the accuracy of needle tip positioning. Here, a novel needle steering strategy is proposed that enhances accuracy of needle steering. In our approach the surgeon is in charge of needle insertion to ensure the safety of operation, while the needle tip bevel location is robotically controlled to minimize the targeting error. The system has two main components: (1) a real-time predictor for estimating future needle deflection as it is steered inside soft tissue, and (2) an online motion planner that calculates control decisions and steers the needle toward the target by iterative optimization of the needle deflection predictions. The predictor uses the ultrasound-based curvature information to estimate the needle deflection. Given the specification of anatomical obstacles and a target from preoperative images, the motion planner uses the deflection predictions to estimate control actions, i.e., the depth(s) at which the needle should be rotated to reach the target. Ex-vivo needle insertions are performed with and without obstacle to validate our approach. The results demonstrate the needle steering strategy guides the needle to the targets with a maximum error of 1.22 mm.